During the 1980s and 1990s, cooperation between EMBs at the regional level intensified, and a number of regional associations were established to facilitate and sustain cooperation. The objectives of the early regional electoral associations which were formed in the 1980s were, however, so general as to be little more than a framework pointing to desirable goals with little specific commitment.

The Association of Electoral Institutions of Central America and the Caribbean (known as the Tikal Protocol), established in Guatemala in 1985, was a representative body of electoral organisations designed to achieve cooperation, exchange information, and facilitate consultation. Its recommendations were not binding on its member organisations. The Association of South American Electoral Organisations (the Quito Protocol) was formed in 1989 along similar lines.

The Inter-American Union of Electoral Organisations (UNIORE) was established in 1991 to promote cooperation between the electoral organisations and associations created under the Tikal and Quito protocols. It extended the potential scope of cooperation to provide support and assistance, as far as practicable, to member organisations which requested them.

Although the elements of information exchange, cooperation, and consultation still featured prominently in objectives of associations formed in the 1990’s, there was greater focus on broad common goals, such as the promotion of free and fair elections, independent and impartial election organisations, and transparent electoral procedures. Specific common regional goals were emphasised, such as cooperation in the improvement of electoral laws and practices, promotion of participation by citizens, political contestants, and non-partisan NGOs in electoral processes, and establishment of resource centres for research and information. These associations also placed a high level of importance on the development of professional electoral officials with high integrity, a strong sense of public service, knowledge, and experience of electoral processes, and a commitment to democratic elections.

The associations which typify these new dimensions include:

• the Association of Central and Eastern European Electoral Officials (ACEEEO), established in 1991;
• the Association of African Election Authorities (AAEA), established in 1997;
• the Association of Asian Election Authorities (AAEA), established in 1997; and
• the Association of Caribbean Electoral Organisations (ACEO), established in 1998.

Other regional networks which came into being around the same time include the Latin America-based Center for Electoral Promotion and Assistance (CAPEL); the Pacific Islands, Australia, New Zealand Electoral Administrators Network (PIANZEA); and the Southern African Development Community Electoral Commissions’ Forum (SADC ECF).

Although the mandates of these networks differ in detail, they all aim to promote the free flow of information among election practitioners and to provide electoral assistance to their member EMBs. For example, the objectives of ACEEEO are the:

1. promotion of open and transparent elections through an exchange of experience and information related to election law and procedure, technology, administrative practice, and voter education;
2. promotion of the training and further education of election officials and international observers;
3. promotion of the principle of independent and impartial election authorities and administrators;
4. development of professional election officials of high integrity, with a strong sense of public service, knowledge of electoral practices, and commitment to democratic elections;
5. promotion of the principle of participation in electoral processes by citizens, political contestants, and non-partisan civil organisations; and
6. development of resources for election-related information and research.

The potential benefits of regional cooperation through associations of electoral organisations are considerable. New EMBs can draw on support and experience from more established electoral authorities, can accelerate their capacity-building potential by exchange of personnel, and may even be able to borrow electoral materials at relatively short notice. The development of common standards with respect to free and fair elections and the quality of electoral services may have a positive effect on losers accepting election results.

The development of EMB networks is constrained in practice by two issues affecting individual EMBs: lack of resources to participate in the association’s activities and fear of compromising perceptions of their independence. Some EMBs shy away from active participation because they fear that dependence on the government for resources for travel, research, or other programme activities might compromise their independence. Resource constraints also restrict the activities of the associations themselves, which have to depend mainly on outside funding.