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Notas Finales de Elecciones y Medios de Comunicación
Contexto Social y Político
1. See James Curran and Myung-Jin Park (eds), De-Westernizing Media Studies, Routledge, London and New York, 2000.
Medios y Democracia
2. Compulsory Membership in an Association Prescribed by Law for the Practice of Journalism, Inter-American Court of Human Rights, Adv. Opn. OC-5/83 of 13 Nov. 1985, Series A no. 5, reprinted in 7 Human Rights Law Journal (1986), 74 and in 8 EHRR 165.
3. Castells v. Spain, Judgment of 23 April 1992, Series A no. 236, para. 43.
4. Thorgeirson v. Iceland, Judgment of 25 June 1992, Series A no. 239, para. 63.
La Obligación de Pluralismo
5. Adopted by the Human Rights Committee at its 461st meeting on 27 July 1983, UN Doc. A/38/40, 109.
6. Retrofit (Pty) Ltd vs Posts and Telecommunications Corporation, Supreme Court, 1995(9) BCLR 1262 (2).
7. Positive ways and means of facilitating the peaceful and constructive solution of problems involving minorities (Report by Special Rapporteur Asbjorn Eide), Addendum 4, UN Doc. E/CN.4/Sub.2/1993/34/Add.4, part II, paras 11 and 12.
8. UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992).
9. Report of the Special Rapporteur on the protection and promotion of the right to freedom of opinion and expression, Mr. Abid Hussain, UN Doc. E/CN.4/1999/64 29 January 1999.
Libertad de Debate Político
10. Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Series A no. 103, at para. 42.
11. Report of the UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15-21 Nov. 1992), para. 26.
12. The State v. The Ivory Trumpet Publishing Co. [1984] 5 NCLR 736, High Court, Enugu, 31 Jan 1983.
13. Zeveli v. Central Committee for the Elections to the 13th Knesset, and Association for Civil Rights in Israel v. the Israeli Broadcasting Authority, HC 869/92 and 931/92; 46(2) Piskei Din, 692.
El Derecho de Acceso a los Medios Públicos
14. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, A Question of Balance: The Zimbabwean media and the constitutional referendum, Harare, 2000.
15. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, Election 2000: The Media War, Harare, 2000, p.11.
16. Arthur Wina & Others v. the Attorney-General (1990) HP/1878 (High Court: Lusaka).
17. Ibid.
18. Rambachan v. Trinidad and Tobago Television Co. Ltd and Attorney-General of Trinidad and Tobago, decision of 17 July 1985 (unreported).
19. Establishment and Terms of Reference of the UN Observer Mission to Verify the Electoral Process in Nicaragua (ONUVEN), The Situation in Central America, UN GAOR, 44th Sess., "Threats to International Peace and Security and Peace Initiatives," UN Doc. A/44/375 (1989), Annexe 1, at 3.
20. Report of the UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15-21 Nov. 1992), para. 27.
21. UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992), pream. para. 4.
Publicar las Opiniones Opositoras
22. X and the Association of Z v. the United Kingdom, European Commission on Human Rights, Admissibility Decision of 12 July 1971, App. No. 4515/70, 38 Collected Decisions 86 (1971).
Derecho de Réplica
23. UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992)
24. Manubhai Shah v. Life Insurance Corp. of India [1992] 3 SCC 637.
25. Belize Broadcasting Authority v. Courtenay and Hoare, Court of Appeal, 20 June 1986; (1988) LRC (Const.) 276; 13 Common L Bull (1987), 1238
26. Ibid., citing Halsbury's Laws of England (4th edn, Vol. 8, para. 1134).
Límites a la Responsabilidad Legal
27. UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), Media Guidelines for Cambodia (1992).
28. Jersild v. Denmark, App. No. 15890/89, decision on admissibility issued 8 Sept. 1992.
29. Egin case, STC 159/86, Boletin de Jurisprudencia Constitucional 68, at 1447 para. 8
Restricciones a la Expresión Política
30. Report of the UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15-21 Nov. 1992), para. 29.
Críticas a los Políticos y Gobierno
31. Castells v. Spain, Judgment of 23 April 1992, Series A no. 236.
32. New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 376 US 254 (1964).
33. Joanna Stevens, "Sullivan's Travels", Southern African Media Law Briefing, Vol.2 No. 1, April 1997.
Protección de las Opiniones Políticas
34. Lingens v. Austria, Judgment of 8 July 1986, Series A no. 103.
Derecho a una Reparación Efectiva
35. Report of the UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15-21 Nov. 1992), para. 29.
Protección de la Seguridad de los Medios
36. World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna Declaration, para. 26.
¿En dónde se Informa la Gente?
37. Margaret Scammell and Holli A. Semetko, "Political Advertising on Television: The British Experience", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
38. David Kerr, "Ideology, resistance and the transformation of performance traditions in post-colonial Malawi", University of Botswana, Gaborone, 1993.
39. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, A question of balance: The Zimbabwean media and the constitutional referendum Harare, March 2000.
40. Gary A. Ferguson, Ukrainian Political Issues and Media Focus Groups: Summary of Findings, International Foundation for Elections Systems, Washington DC, 1999.
Medios Públicos o Estatales
41. Richard Saunders, Dancing out of Tune, Edwina Spicer Productions, Harare, 1999.
Empresas de Telecomunicación Privadas
42. Richard Carver, South Africa, in Richard Carver and Ann Naughton (eds) Who Rules the Airwaves? Broadcasting in Africa, ARTICLE 19 and Index on Censorship, London 1995, p. 91.
43. Richard Carver, "Trends and Themes in African Broadcasting" in Richard Carver and Ann Naughton (eds) Who Rules the Airwaves? Broadcasting in Africa, ARTICLE 19 and Index on Censorship, London 1995, p. 5.
Medios Comunitarios
44. Richard Carver, South Africa, in Richard Carver and Ann Naughton (eds) Who Rules the Airwaves? Broadcasting in Africa, ARTICLE 19 and Index on Censorship, London 1995, p. 93. See also http://www.amarc.org (World Association of Community Radio Broadcasters).
Un "Nuevo" Medio: Internet
45. Elizabeth Weise, "Not Yet for the Net", Media Studies Journal</> Winter 2000, http://www.mediastudies.org/nq6.html.
46. Sally Burnheim, The Right to Communicate: The Internet in Africa, ARTICLE 19, London, 1999. http://www.article19.org.
Legislación o Regulaciones Sobre los Medios Durante Elecciones
47. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabawe. Election 2000: The Media War, Harare, 2000, p. 11.
¿Un periodo Específico de Campaña?
48. Akiba A. Cohen and Gadi Wolfsfeld, "Overcoming Adversity and Diversity: The Utility of Television Political Advertising in Israel", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
Instrumentación de Mecanismos para los Medios y las Regulaciones Electorales
49. Karol Jakubowicz, "Poland and the 1993 Election Campaign: Following the Line of Least Resistance", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
Mecanismos de Instrumentación: Autorregulación de los Medios:
50. Ibid., pp. 38-39.
51. Karen Siune, "Political Advertising in Denmark", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
52. ARTICLE 19, Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, London, 1994, p. 38.
Mecanismos de Instrumentación: Comisión Electoral
53. Anne Johnston and Jacques Gerstle, "The Role of Television Broadcasts n Promoting French Television Candidates", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
54. ARTICLE 19, Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, London, 1994, p. 38.
Mecanismos de Instrumentación: Organismo Especializado
55. Articles 4-6, Independent Media Commission Act.
Procedimientos de Impugnación
56. ARTICLE 19, Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, 1994, p. 38.
57. Viktor Monakhov, "Information Disputes Relating to Election Campaigning Via the Mass Media: The Experience of the Judicial Chamber in the 1999 Election Campaign, in IFES, The Media and the Presidential Elections in Russia 2000, Human Rights Publishers, Moscow, 2000.
Bloqueos Informativos
58. Akiba A. Cohen and Gadi Wolfsfeld, "Overcoming Adversity and Diversity: The Utility of Television Political Advertising in Israel", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
59. Media Experts Commission, Final Report: Media in Elections 1998, 1998, pp. 33-34.
Encuestas de Opinión
60. Helen Darbishire, "Media and the Electoral Process" in Media and democracy, Council of Europe, Strasbourg, 1998, p. 96.
Legislación Internacional y Comparativa sobre los Discursos de Odio y Discriminación
61. Glimmerveen and Others v. The Netherlands, App. Nos. D 8348/78 and 8406/78, 4 EHRR 260 (1982).
62. Jersild v. Denmark, App. No. 15890?89, Decision of 8 September 1992.
63. Meir Kahane and Others v. Board of Directors of the Broadcasting Authority, Israeli Supreme Court, 41(3) PD 255 (1987).
64. H-G Axberger, "Freedom of the Press in Sweden", in ARTICLE 19, Press Law and Practice, 1993.
65. Constitutional Court, AB Hatarozat, No. 30/1992 (26 May).
Derecho de Réplica a las Críticas o Declaraciones Desfavorables
66. Robert M. Entman, "The Media and U.S. Elections: Public Policy and Journalistic Practice", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
.
67. Ibid.
68. Article 21, Independent Media Commission Act, 1994.
¿Acceso Igualitario a Todos los Partidos?
69. Anne Johnston and Jacques Gerstle, "The Role of Television Broadcasts n Promoting French Television Candidates", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
70. Karen Siune, "Political Advertising in Denmark", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
71. Ibid.
72. Gianpiero Gamaleri "Italy and the 1994 Elections: Media, Politics and the Concentration of Power", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
73. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 58.
74. Kees Brants, "The Blank Spot: Political Advertising in the Netherlands", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
¿Acceso Equitativo (o justo) a Todos los Partidos Políticos?
75. Brian Wenham "The United Kingdom: Impartial broadcasters and a Partisan Press", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
.
76. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 58.
77. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 194.
Programación y Extensión de los Espacios de Acceso Directo
78. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, A question of balance: The Zimbabwean media and the constitutional referendum Harare, March 2000.
79. ARTICLE 19, Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, London, 1994, p. 16.
¿Quién está a Cargo de la Producción de las Transmisiones de Acceso Directo?
80. Diana Cammack, Election reporting: a practical guide to media monitoring, ARTICLE 19, London 1998, p. 4.
81. Karol Jakubowicz, "Poland and the 1993 Election Campaign: Following the Line of Least Resistance" in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
Acceso Directo en Referendos
82. Wilson v. Independent Broadcasting Authority, 1979 SLT 279.
83. Report of the UN Technical Team on the Conduct of a Free and Fair Referendum on the Issue of a One Party/Multiparty System in Malawi (15-21 Nov. 1992), para. 27.
Pago por Propaganda Política
84. See, for example, Nadine Strossen, "Freedom of Speech: Issues for a new election and a new century", Media Studies Journal, Winter 2000, http://www.mediastudies.org/nq5.html.
85. Christina Holtz-Bacha and Lynda Lee Kaid, "A Comparative Perspective on Political Advertising: Media and Political System Characteristics", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
Países que Permiten el Pago por Concepto de Propaganda Política
86. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
87. Robert M. Entman, "The Media and U.S. Elections: Public Policy and Journalistic Practice", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995
Un Sistema Mixto de Publicidad y Libre Acceso
88. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
Propaganda Política y Límites a los Gastos de Campaña
89. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
90. Robert M. Entman, "The Media and U.S. Elections: Public Policy and Journalistic Practice", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
¿Regulación Sobre los Contenidos de los Materiales de Acceso Directo?
91. Article 29, Independent Media Commission Act, 1994.
92. Tom Moring, "The North European Exception: Political Advertising on TV in Finland", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
93. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
94. Anne Johnston and Jacques Gerstle, "The Role of Television Broadcasts n Promoting French Television Candidates", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995
95. Tom Moring, "The North European Exception: Political Advertising on TV in Finland", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
96. Anne Johnston and Jacques Gerstle, "The Role of Television Broadcasts n Promoting French Television Candidates", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995
97. Helmut Druck "Germany: Equality within the Constitution", in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
98. Cited in Ibid..
Metodología para el Monitoreo de los Medios
99. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabawe. Election 2000: The Media War, Harare, 2000.
Seguridad de los Periodistas
100. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabawe. Election 2000: The Media War, Harare, 2000.
Actividades y Campañas Gubernamentales
101. Anne Johnston and Jacques Gerstle, "The Role of Television Broadcasts n Promoting French Television Candidates", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
102. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
Bloqueos Informativos/'Periodo de Reflexión'
103. Karen Siune, "Political Advertising in Denmark", in Lynda Lee Kaid and Christina Holtz-Bacha (eds.), Political Advertising in Western Democracies, Sage Publications, London/Thousands Oaks, 1995.
104. Akiba A. Cohen and Gadi Wolfsfeld, "Overcoming Adversity and Diversity: The Utility of Television Political Advertising in Israel", in Ibid.
Acceso de los Medios a los Sitios de Votación
105. Raymond Louw, A Handbook on the Media and Electoral Law, Electoral Institute of Southern Africa, Johannesburg, 1999.
Promover una Cobertura Profesional de los Resultados
106. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, A question of balance: The Zimbabwean media and the constitutional referendum Harare, March 2000.
¿En Dónde Consigue la Gente la Información Electoral? - Ukrania
107. Gary A. Ferguson, Ukrainian Political Issues and Media Focus Groups: Summary of Findings, International Foundation for Elections Systems, Washington DC, 1999.
La Existencia de un Cuerpo Regulador - Italia
108. Gianpiero Gamaleri "Italy and the 1994 Elections: Media, Politics and the Concentration of Power" in Yasha Lange and Andrew Palmer (eds), Media and Elections: a Handbook, European Institute for the Media, Dusseldorf, 1995.
Medios de Comunicación Especializados y Regulación de Elecciones - Bosnia
109. Media Experts Commission, Final Report: Media in Elections 1998, 1998.
Procedimiento de Impugnaciones - Rusia
110. Viktor Monakhov, "Information Disputes Relating to Election Campaigning Via the Mass Media: The Experience of the Judicial Chamber in the 1999 Election Campaign, in IFES, The Media and the Presidential Elections in Russia 2000, Human Rights Publishers, Moscow, 2000.
Discurso de Incitación al Odio o la Violencia - Ruanda
111. Richard Carver, "Broadcasting and Political Transition: Rwanda and Beyond", in Richard Fardon and Graham Furniss (eds), African Broadcast Cultures: Radio in Transition, James Currey, Oxford, 2000, pp. 188-197.
112. International Criminal Tribunal on Rwanda, The Prosecutor vs. Georges Ruggiu, Case No. ICTR-97-32-I, Judgement and Sentence, 1 June 2000; "Blow for Rwandan journalists", BBC News Online, 19 September 2000.
113. ARTICLE 19, Broadcasting Genocide: Censorship, Propaganda and State-Sponsored Violence in Rwanda 1990-1994, London 1996, pp. 120ff.
The Operations of the Regulator on Hate Speech - Bosnia
114. Provisional Electoral Commission, Rules and Regulations, Article 9.35.a, in Media Experts Commission, Final Report: Media in Elections 1998, 1998.
115. Ibid., p. 14.
The Operations of the Regulator on Hate Speech - Zimbabwe
116. Amani Trust, Summary of Political Violence in Zimbabwe, Bulawayo, May-June 2000.
117. As recorded by Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe.
118. Media Monitoring Project Zimbabawe. Election 2000: The Media War, Harare, 2000, p. 45
Paid Political Advertising - Canada
119. Howard R. Penniman and Austin Ranney, "The Regulation of Televised Political Advertising in Six Selected Democracies", Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, n.d.
Media Monitoring - Malawi
120. ARTICLE 19, Malawi at the Crossroads: Final Report of the Malawi Election Media Monitoring Project, London/Lilongwe, March 2000, and at http://www.article19.org.
Government Activities and Campaign Reporting - Malawi
121. "Malawi court orders fair election coverage", Southern African Media Law Briefing, Vol. 4 No. 3, August 1999. (http://fxi.org.za/Medialaw/fairelect.htm)
Reporting Exit Poll Findings - United States
122. http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story.cfm?id=341
An Internet Election - Romania
123. http://ojr.usc.edu/content/story.cfm/request/488/
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