The social and political exclusion of minorities and marginalized groups creates the potential for conflict. A minority is a group of people sharing an ethnic, cultural, religious and/or linguistic identity that is distinct from that of the majority of the population. One of the main characteristics of minorities is that they are usually in a non-dominant position. The term minority may also refer to groups of the population that are marginalized by their political affiliation, their sexual orientation or even their physical capacities.^[1]

The exclusion of a minority or marginalized group from political processes often creates a context characterized by strong incentives for violence.^[2] In addition, the characteristics associated with these groups, be it ethnicity, religious beliefs, language, age, geographical location or sexual preferences, have often been used to further stigmatize and alienate them before, during and after elections.^[3] The mobilization of ethnic hatred by political elites is an all-too frequent example in this respect.^[4]

Empirical cases:

•  Zambia presidential and legislative elections 2006. Chinese workers have increased their presence in the Zambian economy in recent years as part of the development of the copper industry as well as other sectors, such as textiles, road construction and retail. Frustration within Zambia is on the rise as many consider that Chinese investment has not improved the quality of life. Such frustration was reflected in the highly charged debates during the 2006 election.^[5] As a consequence, post-electoral violence surged in Lusaka, targeting, among others, Chinese populations.^[6]
  Interrelated factors: poor socio-economic conditions (external);^[7] provocative party rallying (internal);^[8] rejection of election results (internal).^[9]

•  Ghana presidential and legislative elections 2008. Ghana has a wide array of ethnic groups who have clashed on different occasions over political control of the country. Northern Ghana has long seen disputes between the Kusasis and Mamprusis, two groups that have enjoyed the support of different political parties.^[10] Conflicts between these parties have generated tensions that have in turn contributed to violence, in particular during the 2008 elections, when the pre-election period was affected by vandalism in registration centres, shootings, burning of houses and cars and attacks on journalists. In addition, three people were killed and many more injured.^[11]
  Interrelated factors: conflict relating to changing power dynamics (external);^[12] problematic voter registration (internal).^[13]