The media's role in creating peaceful and non-violent elections

The Question

This question is posted by ACE on behalf of Abera Wendoson, Ethiopian Press Agency.

How can the media can play a role in creating peaceful and non violent elections?  More specifically:

• What sort of preparations should the media make in advance of an election ? 

• What do you think the public wants to know in advance of an election?

• What is the right time frame for the media to discuss aspects of an election ?

Practitioners' Network members are encouraged to share advice useful to members of the media like print journalists. 

Summary of Responses

Practitioners' Network members addressed the question by mentioning the media’s responsibilities and appropriate pre-election preparations, advising what the public wants to gain from the media, suggesting the time frame for media to discuss elections, suggesting recommendations, and giving examples of the media’s role in elections in various countries. A summary of the responses follows: 

1) The media’s responsibilities and appropriate pre-election preparations: 

• Media should be alert, engaged, proactive, and not afraid to ask the tough questions on an matter pertaining to the operational conduct of an election. 

• Media should inform and engage the potential voter

• Media exists to inform not in any matter subservient to the status quo

• The media should provide training to its reporters and journalists who will cover the election process.  In this way, the media staff will be informed on the legal aspects, norms, and any revisions to the legal framework of that country.
• The EMB should work with the media in nominating one spokesperson to develop a strategic plan on who can respond to the media according to the degree of news.

• The media and EMB should agree on an ethics code in order to properly distribute a protocol on legal rules and/or specific topics that the media should follow.  This will inform the media in advance of the election what conduct will not be accepted.  Ideally, the media should establish a good relationship with the EMB so the two can work together. 

• The media should present the citizen alternative proposals of each candidate, form a balanced viewpoint, without taking a viewpoint for or against a particular candidate or party.

• The media is a tool for promoting transparency and credibility of elections. 
• Prior to the election, the media should familiarize itself with the location of electoral rolls, polling centers, candidates and their insignia, social projects of the candidates, the voting, who is entitled to vote, opening and closing hours of polls, whether or not elections will be monitored by observers, etc. 

2) Public election knowledge gained from media:

• The public wishes to be informed by the media in a non-biased objective, neutral manner
• The media serves as a link for the voters so they know what transpires during an election
• The public wants to know that it can trust the EMB to deliver credible election results in a timely and transparent fashion, and that it can trust the media to deliver those results accurately and without stirring sectarian or ethnic suspicion.  This means that the EMB needs a responsible media as much as the media needs an efficient and transparent EMB. 
• The media should inform the public on who is competing for office and their manifesto; when, where, and what time the election will take place; and how citizens can vote, but not who they should vote for. 

3) Time frame for media engagement in and reporting of elections:

• Ideally, the media should be involved at all times throughout the ‘civic social electoral process,’ which may exceed the time frames allocated on an electoral process.
• The EMB should be using the media to provide preliminary reports during Election Day, specifying whether or not polling stations opened on time, voter turnout, etc. 
• The media should inform the electoral population before the election period on the content of legal texts and on raising awareness for the development of responsible citizenship. 
• Post-election, the media can contribute by giving information on lessons learned rom the past election process in order to prepare for the next election. 
• The media should report on the electoral cycle and updates 365 days a year, 24/7.

4) Suggested recommendations:

• Consider the following questions:

1. Is the media you are working with regulated in any way? What freedoms of expression laws, or publication laws, are already in place?
2. What type of media is prevalent? And what type of media has maximum outreach in the situation? 

• It is also important to consider electoral law and silencing periods; safety of journalists, civil society, and candidates; gender participation; inflammatory language by media and candidates; rural and urban access to election polls; and media monitoring before, during, and after elections. 
• The media should be invited to press briefings by the policy body prior to the launching of any major activity of the electoral process. 

5) Countries cited as examples of the media’s role in elections:

• Mexico
• Ecuador
• Rwanda
• Iraq
• Jordan
• Zambia
• Afghanistan
• Burundi
• Kenya
• Democratic Republic of Congo
• Bosnia

External Resources: 

The Guide on Action Points for the Prevention and Mitigation of Election-related Violence

International IDEA online electoral cycle tool

Calling Article ‘Divisive,’ Afghanistan Orders Expulsion of Times Correspondent

Sending Messages to Reduce Violent Conflict

Dealing with Election-Related Violence in Fragile and Conflict-Affected States

Contributing Members: 

• Deyanira Galindo
• Gisella Ibanez
• Idi Boina
• Liberata Irambona
• Michel Sabubwa
• Carl Dundas
• Erik Asplund
• Stina Larserud
• Jacky Sutton
• Karina Mayer
• Agnes Ndayikeza
• Augustin Habonayo
• Rabiu Sabo Abdullahi
• Aiah Stephen Mattia
• Nchimunya Michelo Silenga
• Ayesha Chugh
• Enrique Lopez Sanavia
• Sumedh Rao

My opinion will be from the side of the EMB. The media has a very important role since is the link the voters have to know what is going on during the elections. However, media is a private enterprise and the "show" pays more and they want to get the coverage and more audience. There is a saying "Good news are not news" and that is a terrible problem when the media only takes one place or region and generalizes the problematic. Even when one very important democratic principle is the freedom of spech and dissemination of information, it has to be done responsibly and professionally ethical.

I will consider four important aspects to be considered on the EMB side:

1. Providing close contact and transparent information with media. In this regard, it could be a good opportunity to provide training to the reporters and journalists who will cover the E-Day. So they will be informed on the legal aspects, what is normal during the process, particularly if there has been a new reform introduced o some changes applied. Besides it is also important to provide documents and all the information at every stage of the electoral process cycle, so they can be giving informing the whole process and not only the electoral day.

2. The EMB should nominate only one spokeperson, and internally of the EMB, to develop a strategic plan where specifying who in each district, section level can give information to the media and elaborating a "traffic light" alert on who can respond to the media according to the danger level or degree of the news.

3. Ellaborating a coordinated plan or signing an ethic code with the media in order not to promote riots or violence or not giving information unframed in order to avoid misunderstandings. Other option for the EMB is to distribute a protocol or legal rules on specific topics to be followed by the media so they will know in advance what conducts are not allowed. As an example could be mentioned, not to deliver any results before the closing time for the polling stations.

4. The EMB should be using the media to provide preliminary reports during the E-Day, for example, pointing out if all the polling stations opened on time, to report how at that cut is the turnout, if there was a problem how they have acted, and to specify that is only one region or place but not the whole country.

5. In Mexico, the administration of the TV and Radio is granted to the National Electoral Institute (INE), and only INE can transmit political and electoral spots. Regarding the transmission of the results, they are download directly to INE's webpage that media prefers to connect directly to it and to be reporting according to it, but by law, media is forbiden to provide results before 18:00 when polling stations close.

My opinion will be from the side of the EMB. The media has a very important role since is the link the voters have to know what is going on during the elections. However, media is a private enterprise and the "show" pays more and they want to get the coverage and more audience. There is a saying "Good news are not news" and that is a terrible problem when the media only takes one place or region and generalizes the problematic. Even when one very important democratic principle is the freedom of spech and dissemination of information, it has to be done responsibly and professionally ethical.

I will consider four important aspects to be considered on the EMB side:

1. Providing close contact and transparent information with media. In this regard, it could be a good opportunity to provide training to the reporters and journalists who will cover the E-Day. So they will be informed on the legal aspects, what is normal during the process, particularly if there has been a new reform introduced o some changes applied. Besides it is also important to provide documents and all the information at every stage of the electoral process cycle, so they can be giving informing the whole process and not only the electoral day.

2. The EMB should nominate only one spokeperson, and internally of the EMB, to develop a strategic plan where specifying who in each district, section level can give information to the media and elaborating a "traffic light" alert on who can respond to the media according to the danger level or degree of the news.

3. Ellaborating a coordinated plan or signing an ethic code with the media in order not to promote riots or violence or not giving information unframed in order to avoid misunderstandings. Other option for the EMB is to distribute a protocol or legal rules on specific topics to be followed by the media so they will know in advance what conducts are not allowed. As an example could be mentioned, not to deliver any results before the closing time for the polling stations.

4. The EMB should be using the media to provide preliminary reports during the E-Day, for example, pointing out if all the polling stations opened on time, to report how at that cut is the turnout, if there was a problem how they have acted, and to specify that is only one region or place but not the whole country.

5. In Mexico, the administration of the TV and Radio is granted to the National Electoral Institute (INE), and only INE can transmit political and electoral spots. Regarding the transmission of the results, they are download directly to INE's webpage that media prefers to connect directly to it and to be reporting according to it, but by law, media is forbiden to provide results before 18:00 when polling stations close.

La principal responsabilidad de los medios de comunicación, además de la información logística en torno al los lugares definidos por la autoridad electoral de  dónde votar, es presentar al ciudadano las alternativas de propuestas de cada candidato, desde una mirada equilibrada sin tomar posición a favor o en contra .  

En Ecuador se ha definido una franja , regulada por la autoridad electoral   en todos los medios de comunicación, para garantizar la participación  de todos los candidatos en los mass medios. Además de incorporarse artículos que pretendían evitar la promoción de cualquier candidatos en los medios, lo que generó intensos debates e incluso oposición de actores políticos y comunicacionales.

En Principe, les  Médias  representent le trait d'union Entre   les Responsables électoraux,  les Candidats et l'Electorat.

La couverture des Campagnes Electorales Médiatique aide-Les Citoyens fr état de l'électeur à Comprendre les differentes Formalités à REMPLIR verser participer aux-élections et A opérer Le Choix de Leur Candidats.

De Dans d'Autre paie, À Travers Les médias, SONT véhicules des messages Sur Le Processus AINSI Qué des Propositions des programmes   des Partis Politiques. En Effet, les Médias et redingote les Médias d'Etat, SONT non atout majeur n'avez l'utilisation may Avoir des Effets significatifs sur l'orientation des élections et sur ​​le Caractère   Egal, honnête et crédible De Celles-ci.

Contrairement à la mission Qui Leur is cessionnaire  à savoir le partage de l'informations et la liberté d'expression, Les Médias comoriens SONT devenus le théâtre de propos injurieux, haineux MALGRÉ l'existence d'un code de non informations de l'.

En 2009 par Exemple, BNO Avons assisté à l'arrestation an de certains Membres du Gouvernement de L'ile autonome de Ngazidja Qui A travers la Radio insulaire scandaient verser le régionalisme et à l'occasion avançaient des discours houleux relatifs au partage de compétence à l 'Egard des Autorités de l'Union.

La periode de campagne électorale HNE le moment, le plus les voitures de scandaleux les médias se transforment en des camps de dénigrement au lieu de contribuer à la sensibilisation des Électeurs par des débats Politiques et SOCIAUX. Ceci HNE le resultat de l'incompétence de certains Journalistes Mais aussi de Leur dépendance à l'ONU Politique parti, à l'ONU candidat Soit du Pouvoir ous opposition de l'.

Sur may Fait en déduire Que l'informations se Situe PARMI les provoque des relations conflictuelles Entre Les Acteurs du Processus de nominal de électoral, voiture Les Journalistes les Politiques SONT Evidemment incapables de Garder Leur Neutralité DANS our paie.

1. EN TANT QUE EMBs, JE DIRAI QUE "MEDIA" EST CONSIDERE COMME UN PARTENAIRE PRIMORDIAL DANS LES ELECTIONS. LA MEDIATISATION DES ELECTIONS PEUT CONDUIRE SOIT AU BON DEROULEMENT OU SOIT AU CONFLITS ELECTORAUX.

2. MAIS DANS TOUT CELA "MEDIA" DOIT ETRE NEUTRE ET PRENDRE LES CANDIDATS AU MEME PIEDS D'EGALITE ET SANS DISTINGUTION AUCUNE.

3. UNE AUTRE CHOSE TRES IMPORTANT EST QUE LA MEDIATISATION ELECTORALE DOIT SE FAIRE TOUT AU LONG DES ELECTIONS: *DANS LA PERIODE PRE-ELECTORALE;

                                                               *DANS LA PERIODE ELECTORALE;

                                                                *DANS LA PERIODE POST-ELECTORALE.

NB: PAR EXEMPLE AU RWANDA, LA COMMISSION NATIONALE ELCTORALE( NEC) ON AVAIT SIGNE  UN MoU AVEC "RWANDA  MEDIA HIGH COUNCIL" POUR LA COUVERTURE MEDIATIQUE DU PROCESSUS ELECTORAL LORS DES ELECTIONS LEGISLATIVES DE 2013 ET C'ETAIT VRAIMENT IDEAL.

EN GUISE DE CONCLUSION,JE DIRAIS QUE SI VRAIMENT ON VEUT REUSSIR LES ELECTIOS,IL FAUT CONSIDERER LA MEDIATISATION!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

Le rôle des médias est important pendant tout le processus électoral. En effet, la population électorale a besoin d'être informée, par exemple en période pré-électorale, sur le contenu des textes légaux en la matière, sur la sensibilisation en vue du développement d'une citoyenneté responsable,...

Les médias contribuent également à l'apaisement des esprits, surtout pendant la période électorale mais également peuvent être un canal de transmission des informations dur tout ce qui a trait à l'éducation électorale. Continuons en disant que s'ils parviennent à travailler en synergie, avec un code de conduite établi et bien observé, les médias peuvent porter généralement loin l'information sur le processus électoral en cours  et ainsi contribuer à prévenir ou apaiser les conflits électoraux.

Pendant la période post électorale, les médias contribuent par exemple en donnant des information sur les leçons tirées du processus électoral passé ; de son évaluation et vue d'une bonne préparation du suivant.

Terminons  en disant que les médias constituent un partenaire électoral qu'il faut toujours considérer et sa contribution en vue de la réussite des élections reste toujours perceptible.

In general, the media, including social media platforms, should work closely with the electoral management body (EMB) concerned throughout an election cycle, that is after the activities relating to the previous general or other national elections have been concluded. The media and public interest should be kindled at the commencement of each election preparatory process ranging from the delimitation of constituencies' or electoral districts' boundaries to voter registration process. The EMB concerned is the key to giving the media timely, accurate and non-discriminatory press releases on the progress of election preparation and conduct for the public consumption.  

The Guide on Action Points for the Prevention and Mitigation of Election-related violence available via the following link http://www.idea.int/elections/ermtool/upload/ERMT-Guide-on-Action-Points.pdf provides several examples of how media can play a role in creating peaceful and non violent elections. The guide is divided into the eight sections, reflecting the phases outlined in the electoral cycle approach. For media, have a look at pages 57, 82, 89, 91, 96 which covers media CoC, monitoring, result reporting, civic education and collaboration with EMBs and SSAs. All of the 100+ cases in the guide are identified through desk research and contributions from organizations with practical experience in this field.

The action points presented in the guide mirror the content of the  International IDEA Electoral Risk Management Tool (ERMT) prevention and mitigation module. In general the ERMT  includes 3 modules: 1) knowledge resources; 2) analytical instruments and; 3) prevention and mitigation action points. The ERMT is a global public good and is available free of charge for credible  and non-for-profit organization  via the following page: http://www.idea.int/elections/ermtool/

Please also take a look at the International IDEA online electoral cycle tool, which can be used to tailor the electoral cycle based on who you are and what you want to do. For a long list of specific suggestions of how and when media can be involved in and contribute to genuine and credible elections, please have a look here.

Dear Abera,

 Jacky Sutton (comment above) gives a very solid detailed response to your queries.  My response is more general.

I have worked on media and elections in Iraq and in Jordan with the UN for the last four years. A free but professional press is essential to good governance and democracy.  Building the capacity of media to report accurately on elections in supporting transparency and accountability, and ensuring maximum public participation requires a 'top down' and 'bottom up approach.  There are many factors to consider and they must be addressed simultaneously i.e.. working with media in isolation will not work, and certainly not in the long term.   I would be happy to communicate at length, and answer any targeted questions that you may have, and you can find me on [email protected]

Here are some areas that  I think need consideration when developing a project and devising its implementation.

Electoral law and silencing periods, electoral cycles

What electoral system are you working with and do you have an established electoral commission?

Is the media you are working with regulated in any way?  What freedom of expression laws, or publication laws are already in place?

What type of media is prevalent?  And what type of media has maximum outreach in situ i.e. Afghanistan used to be radio, in Iraq it is broadcast media but trending towards ICTs

Safety: Of journalists, civil society and candidates

Gender participation.  Participation of voters - will be women be safe and supported to vote?  Is there support to include women or minorities as candidates and is that something the media can be trained to cover?

Inciteful language - both media and candidates

Access - Rural and Urban

Media monitoring pre, during and post election

Les medias jouent un rôle très important dans l'apaisement du processus électoral, en informant correctement et en temps réel la population en général et les électeurs en particulier.

Les médias sont un des outils  pour la promotion de la transparence et de la crédibilité des élections. Ils contribuent également à galvaniser les électeurs le jour du scrutin pour répondre massivement aux élections.

En veillant à l'équilibre de l'information comme le dicte leur déontologie, ils contribuent à créer chez les électeurs un esprit critique par rapport à l'actualité électorale et ainsi les amènent progressivement à opérer un choix judicieux.

Avant les élections, les médias doivent se préparer en formant leurs journalistes en couverture médiatique des élections, ce qu'ils doivent faire, ce qui est bon à livrer comme information, quand et comment le dire. Ceci est très important pour amener les médias à assurer une bonne couverture des élections.

Il faut qu'ils sachent aussi que les points de vue des électeurs notamment sur l'organisation des élections en général, l'enrôlement des électeurs,  les candidats en lice,  les lieux de vote sont important pour toutes les parties prenantes au processus électoral.

 Avant les élections, le public doit connaître les endroits d'affichage des listes électorales, les lieux de vote (les centres et les bureaux), les candidats en lice et leurs insignes, les projets de société de ces candidats, le déroulement du vote, qui est autorisé à voter, les heures d'ouverture et de clôture du scrutin, si les élections seront suivies par les observateurs, etc.

Il faut que le public soit informé sur la prise en compte du genre et des personnes à besoins spécifiques dans les élections   

Le meiller moment pour discuter des aspects des élections sont les périodes de campagne électorale car tous les esprits sont braqués sur cet événément combien important dans la vie des nations. C'est alors à ce moment que les débats doivent être organisés pour mieux éclairer les choix des électeurs.

Noter quand même que les médias sont indispensables dans toutes les phases du cycle électoral.

habonayo augustin

Les médias jouent un rôle très important dans le processus électoral. Ceux qui disent que les médias constituent un 4ème pouvoir ne se trompent pas. Les médias sont le garant d'un bon dérouelement du processus électoral. Il tiennent régulièrement linformer  la population sur le déroulement des élections,quant à toutes les phases de cette activité: l'enrôlement, l'affichage, les partis ou les candidats en compétition, les lieux ( les centres et bureaux de vote)les modalités du déroulement du vote. Par ailleurs les médias donnent de l'espace aux partis et candidats pour s'adressser aux militants, organiser aussi des débats entre les tous les partenaires, principalement les partis et les candidats pour éclairer la population électrice. Mais pour réussir cette noble mission, il faut du professionnalisme des médias. Pour cela les journalistes doivent être formés sur les techniques et sur la déontologie professionnelle. Ils ne doivent se pencher à qui que ce soit. Il s doivent faire preuve de neutralité.

Freedom of information is the only weapon where media can actually be of importance to the general public in reaching out the activities of the EMB. Once the media cannot access an information, it assumed that the citizens will only be left out without the knowledge on how to exercise there civic duties. But, with involvement of the media by  EMB as a partner in reaching out to public, media is very important in making election to be free and fair.

How can the media play a role in creating peaceful and non violent elections?  More specifically:

• What sort of preparations should the media make in advance of an election ?
• The media should refresh and realign its focus on elections reporting, which is not like any other event reporting. Media training prior to an election is a necessary requirement to ensure that the media understand the issues, the timeline and all the sensitivities surrounding the process. Media reporting may make or break an election.
  

• What do you think the public wants to know in advance of an election?
• The public first of all would be interested in the franchise for an election, i.e., the right to vote and be voted for. Once this is ascertained, the next logical information is how eligible persons will get onto the roll, the form of registration technology and its structure in terms of administration and operations. Information about where voters will be captured is relevant. In most cases, registration centers eventually become polling centers. This knowledge then forms the basis or motivation to get onto the voter's roll. The date, time and hours of voting, and how votes will be calculated and translated into seats are other pertinent pieces of information for the public.
  

• What is the right time frame for the media to discuss aspects of an election ?
• The media are part of the external stakeholders. Each stakeholder has a relevance and time line for participation. I would involve the media after the electoral calendar, timelines and electoral education messages have been formulated and agreed by the EMB. The media should then be engaged through the external relations unit of the EMB and given the calendar, activities timeline, electoral information and public education messages and FAQs for dissemination. 
• In addition to these specific stages, the media should also be invited to press briefings by the policy body prior to the launcing of any major activity of the electoral process.

Stephen Aiah Mattia

What sort of preparations should the media make in advance of an election?

I think the media should take an interest in the whole electoral process starting from the legal framework of a given country. This helps them disseminate the real issues surrounding an election because they would be aware of the laws, rules and regulations that they are operating in. They would also serve as a point of information for all stakeholders when they report facts eg access to public media during campaigns. It could be very common in a country for the ruling party to dominate public media during campaigns while denying the opposition access. In such a case, it would be good if the media was aware of the legal framework that surrounds this issue. An example is Zambia where the Electoral Commission of Zambia in conjunction with stakeholders developed a code of conduct which clearly states roles and responsibilities of all electoral stakeholders. It even goes as far as stating stipulated punishments for breaking any of the laid down laws. The media must educate itself on its roles and responsibilities in the electoral process. Electoral laws and practices may change so media should always stay up-to-date with these issues.

What do you think the public wants to know in advance of an election?

The public wants to know:

1)      who is competing for office and their manifesto;

2)      when, where and what time the election will take place;

3)      how they can vote, is it a tick, a cross, a line (not who they should vote for);

    What is the right time frame for the media to discuss aspects of an election?

Information to the public about elections must be continuous but due to limited resources, I would like to think that as soon as campigns are open then the media should also get busy and start to provide information to the public because in a lot more ways than they realize, media plays a huge role in voter education, conflict management/resolution and conflict avoidance or the start of it.

Hi Abera, the recent controversy in Afghanistan surrounding the expulsion of the NYT correspondent may bear some interesting implications on the role of journalists and media during elections, and more specifically reporting of political issues AFTER an election has happened, or while votes are still being counted. This is of course while keeping in mind that this is during a hotly contested election in a conflict-prone country. 

http://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/21/world/asia/afghanistan-orders-expulsion-of-new-york-times-correspondent.html?hp&action=click&pgtype=Homepage&version=HpSum&module=first-column-region&region=top-news&WT.nav=top-news&_r=0

Opinión, con relación a las interrogantes planteadas, se precisa lo siguiente:

1.- Existen muchas formas para evitar enfrentamientos de votantes, mediante la imparcial, responsable y transparente actitud de los medios informativos, lo que se logra, regulando la inequitativa  difusión de mensajes pagados por partidos y candidatos. Se impone un control y vigilancia de medios, de propaganda política y de discriminación difusiva, por parte de las autoridades electorales, incluyendo su parte sancionadora. Hay que evitar difusión de resultados ampulosos y anticipados que provoquen levantamientos, inconformidades, escándalo  y protestas de grupos sociales, ante la omisión de  organización estricta de la autoridad electoral. La falta de tacto y sensibilidad político electoral es una de las causas  que originan  comicios no pacíficos, al confundir al electorado la participación inequitativa de medios de difusión propagandística.

2.- Los medios de comunicación, las autoridades electorales, los partidos, las organizaciones civiles, las universidades, tiene el deber político de difundir la Educación cívica y cultura política, difundir los derechos y obligaciones del elector y de los candidatos. Hay que preparar al ciudadano en sus tres fases: pre-electoral, electoral y post-electoral, para incrementar la credibilidad y confianza social.

3.- El publico es población, de donde se derivan electores y no electores. El interés de la población, reside en que le digan cual es la  fecha de la elección, porque la desconocen, al igual que el perfil de los candidatos; quieren conocer las propuestas políticas porque son ventana y esperanza del mañana, saber que la cosa política va a mejorar para bien social. Quieren conocer los resultados veraces de las elecciones.

4.- El tiempo debe ser el necesario, de acuerdo a la idiosincrasia de los pueblos. El marco temporal del ámbito político, para no cansar al votante, ni  a los niños que aunque no votan se disgustan por el abuso de publicidad de toda naturaleza, en la televisión, en la calle, en los eventos públicos, etcétera. Debe ser un tiempo idóneo, corto durante las campañas electorales, dado que  las mujeres y jóvenes, se fastidian al observar lo mismo en los debates y  puntos de discusión, debido a la falta de capacitación profesional de los candidatos, que se rija bajo un código de comportamiento político y no actúen como máquinas repitiendo los mismos guiones técnicos, idénticos spots y mensajes políticos. A los discapacitados y adultos mayores, porque no se les dedica tiempo alguno ni se pone atención a sus necesidades.

Earlier this year I was commissioned by DFID to 'Identify literature on interventions that send messages, such as through advertising, to change attitudes, norms and behaviour about violent conflict.' The report reference and a link to the PDF are available here:

Rao, S. (2014). Sending messages to reduce violent conflict. GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1050. Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham. http://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/HDQ1050.pdf 

I have attached the PDF. There is also a GSDRC summary here: http://www.gsdrc.org/go/display&type=Helpdesk&id=1050

The key findings were:

"Research for this helpdesk report did not find a specific body of literature focused on sending messages to change attitudes, norms and behaviour about violent conflict. Rather, there is a wide range of literature that covers interventions to address conflict, which include the sending of messages in one form or another, and often as part of a wider strategy. This report explores the substantial literature on such multi-faceted interventions so as to identify the influence and effectiveness of the message-sending component.

Sending messages through media campaigns has been effective in other sectors, most notably in relation to health issues, but though there are examples where sending messages impacts on attitudes, norms and behaviour, there is no conclusive evidence that by itself it causes such changes. Sending messages is likely to only be effective in conjunction with a comprehensive approach involving a wider range of activities, such as dialogue or training.

The media, such as newspapers, radio and television, are the main way that messages to change attitudes and behaviour are communicated in campaigns. In conflict situations, the media does not necessarily always either promote or prevent conflict, but still acts as an important, influential force in most societies. The media can help inform decisions and counteract hateful and violent messages, but can also undermine peacebuilding processes. There is no single way that the media affects audiences, and the media cannot ‘inject’ behaviours or attitudes into people’s minds but rather affects the formation of attitudes and beliefs which in turn impact on behaviour.

In addition to media interventions, two approaches to sending messages are identified that seem of particular relevance: social marketing and the inclusion of educational messages in entertainment programmes.

A number of case studies are identified in the report that cover multi-faceted interventions and include a messaging component. Projects are explored from Burundi, Rwanda, Kenya, the Democratic Republic of Congo and Bosnia."

I hope this is of use.

Another paper, this time commissioned by the Australian government, looked to ' Identify literature on lessons learned for dealing with election-related violence in fragile and conflict-affected states'. The report reference and a link to the PDF are available here:

Rao, S. (2014). Dealing with election-related violence in fragile and conflict-affected states. GSDRC Helpdesk Research Report 1126. Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham. http://www.gsdrc.org/docs/open/HDQ1126.pdf

I have attached the PDF again and there is a GSDRC summary here: http://www.gsdrc.org/go/display&type=Helpdesk&id=1126

The key findings were:

"There are a number of causes of election-related violence, which can occur at different stages of the electoral cycle. Dealing with this violence very much depends on understanding these causes and tailoring measures to address them.

This report draws on guidance material, evaluation literature and empirical studies to provide a brief overview of measures to prevent and address electoral violence, and outline lessons learned. There are a wide range of measures available to prevent and reduce electoral violence:

• Election-related security and security sector reform
• Election monitoring
• Media monitoring
• Voter education and public awareness
• Civil society and public engagement initiatives
• Legal framework reforms
• Electoral management bodies
• Electoral dispute resolution
• Social and economic support
• Other measures: Including trust building, an inclusive process and building on local ownership. Timing of elections is important; elections that take place soon after civil war can lead to a resumption of conflict. 

Emerging literature on armed groups and elections highlights the relationship between armed groups and political forces, and the access of armed groups to independent resources. These determine whether armed groups are maintained by the government, eliminated, or continue despite opposition. Subnational conflict often relates to perceived injustice, marginalisation, and a sense of threatened identity. Such conflict can be ethnopolitical in nature, where the type of electoral system can have an impact on electoral violence levels."

On the issue of media monitoring: 

"Media monitoring: The media can monitor elections and provide balanced information. Recommendations include improving media literacy skills among citizens around elections and reforming media policy and regulation to focus on a public interest approach."

I hope this too is of use.