The cost of maintaining and
protecting the integrity of elections depends on the electoral approaches used and the extent
of safeguards required. The implementation of integrity safeguards should be
weighed against the potential risks to integrity at each stage of the electoral
process. The risk of elections lacking integrity is that they might not be viewed
as credible by parts of the population, or their results as illegitimate. These
effects are particularly pronounced when there are security threats or large
scale irregularities have become apparent. Aside from the political
implications, having to organize repeat elections due to integrity issues can
cost far more preventing them in the first place.
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Electoral administrators and
policy makers should determine whether it is worth the cost to adopt each of
the mechanisms they are considering. They should ask themselves the question:
How will the integrity of the electoral process be affected if this measure is
not applied?
Their assessment will differ
according to the social and political context of the country concerned. In
electoral systems characterized by high levels of distrust, extensive
safeguards may be justified to reassure participants. Although the safeguards
may involve high costs, the extra expense can be justified if the result is a
credible election, the results of which are widely accepted. On the other hand,
in established electoral systems where electoral procedures are routine and largely
undisputed, the benefits of additional safeguards might not justify the
additional cost.
Some integrity mechanisms may
not require major outlays. For example, for effective planning and the
development of good systems, all that is necessary is to make proper use of the
time and skills of electoral and other professionals. The same is true for the
internal control mechanisms that are part of any electoral management system.
Ensuring transparency and
holding electoral administrators and election officers accountable for their
actions are integrity safeguards that do not have a price per se. Institutional protections, including checks-and-balances,
are also crucial in maintaining integrity, and do not involve additional operational
expenses.
However, many election
integrity safeguards are more expensive than these and therefore require
cost-benefit analysis. What is the likelihood that the problem will actually
occur and how would it affect the integrity of the election? How effective is
the safeguard? Will it increase confidence in the integrity of the process?
Will it increase the credibility of the process? Is it affordable to adopt and
maintain over time? Are there more cost-effective ways of achieving the same
result?
Suitable
staff.
Personnel costs are the
largest expense in election administration. However risks to integrity mount if
staff numbers are or insufficient or staff lack proper skills and training.
Safeguards
on electoral materials
Additional
safeguards on electoral materials may also add to election costs. For example, it
is more expensive to print serial numbers on ballot stubs, but they offer a
simple and effective way of tracking ballots. Other mechanisms are more sophisticated
but more expensive. It costs more to use watermarked security paper for ballots
rather than ordinary paper, and such supplies have to be ordered further in
advance.
New
technology
Adoption
of new technology can enhance integrity. Examples are: computerized voter registration lists and
election-management systems including equipment/supply inventories with built-in
checking and control mechanisms. However, new technology can sometimes create
integrity risks; this could happen, for instance, if on-line voting is
permitted.
New technology can also be
expensive, and the investment in hardware and know-how may not be sustainable,
particularly if the initial purchase depended on international support. Technology is most cost-effective when it is suited
to local conditions.
Equipment and Staff Acquisition
Equipment can be leased
instead of purchased, reducing the risk of obsolescence. Equipment from other
organizations can be used; in the 1999 election in Indonesia, a bank’s computer
network was used for vote counting. In these type of circumstances, the integrity issues involved in using an
outside system and staff should also be considered.
Investigations and Enforcement
Monitoring and enforcing electoral
law, procedures and regulations are key factors in maintaining integrity. Oversight,
investigation, administrative and civil enforcement, and prosecution can be
costly, but can be effective in combating electoral irregularities or
violations, helping to ensure the integrity of the electoral process and assuring
the public that problems are being effectively addressed.
Voter Education
Voter education is another
important integrity mechanism. But when funds are low, public education is often
one of the first programs to be dropped. Electoral administrators can find
low-cost options for disseminating information, such as negotiating free
broadcasting time on radio or television, holding regular press conferences,
and relying on non-governmental organizations to help convey critical messages
to voters.
