Districting
Districting involves
determining the number, size and boundaries of electoral districts. A district
is a voting area with a certain number of seats up for election.
To respect
the principle of one person, one vote, representation from each district needs
to be relatively equal. When districting is performed by a partisan body, it
may become a political tool for marginalizing specific groups or ensuring that
particular candidates or parties are elected. Districting should be performed
regularly to ensure equal representation, taking into account population shifts. [1]
One
Person, One Vote
Representation from each
district needs to be approximately equal in terms of the ratio of seats to
voters. This ensures that all voters, regardless of place of residence, are
represented equally.
However, the context should be
considered since a number of countries recognize that population equality is
not the only important criterion for representation. Other factors may be
considered to guarantee not only equal but also effective representation—for
example, an electoral district’s cultural identity, history and geography (e.g., containing sparsely populated or
isolated regions), and the presence of minorities.
These factors may conflict
with the one person, one vote principle. As a solution, many countries prescribe
the acceptable deviation from absolute equality. Some countries also feel that
public participation in districting is important. In Canada,
for example, readjustments to electoral boundaries are preceded by a series of
public hearings giving voters the opportunity to express their views, thereby
making the process as fair as possible.[2]
Partisan
Influences
An independent body or the
electoral administrators may be given responsibility for districting, but in some
countries it is a task for partisan majorities in the legislature. This permits
politicians to set boundaries for partisan benefit, drawing the lines so that
opposition support is concentrated in a few districts and the ruling party
maintains an advantage in other districts. Boundaries may also be manipulated
by scattering support for the opposition across a number of electoral
districts.
Drawing the lines to secure
partisan advantage is often referred to as “gerrymandering”, after the name of
a former governor of Massachusetts (US), Elbridge Gerry, who formed
an election district which had a shape said to resemble a salamander. It primarily
occurs in electoral systems having single-member constituencies (also referred
to as “single-mandate districts”, or SMDs). In countries in democratic transition,
gerrymandering often takes the form of allocating more seats to regions where
the incumbent party has strong support. This was the case in Kenya
in 1997 and Nigeria
in 1999.[3]
Some countries shelter the districting process from political interference to prevent gerrymandering. In Canada,
completely independent commissions readjust electoral boundaries. Each province
has its own three-member commission: the chief justice of the province names a
judge to head the commission, and the Speaker of the House of Commons appoints
the other two members.[4] In New
Zealand, readjustments are made by an
independent statutory agency known as the Representation Commission, composed
of the Government Statistician, the Surveyor-General and the Chief Electoral
Officer.
Readjusting
Electoral Boundaries
Populations shift over time.
Rural residents move to urban areas and the demographics of a country change.
Electoral boundaries need to be regularly reviewed to safeguard election
integrity and the principle of one person, one vote. To take such changes into
consideration without creating excessive administrative burdens, redistricting
should be undertaken at reasonable intervals—for example, every 5 to 10 years.
The timing of redistricting
may affect the outcome of an election. For governments or politicians inclined
toward gerrymandering, the ideal moment to redistrict is immediately before an
election.
[1] See,
e.g., OSCE/ODIHR, “Existing Commitments …”, op.
cit., Part One, para. 3.3: “When
necessary, redrawing of election districts shall occur according to a
predicable timetable, and through a method prescribed by law and should reflect
reliable census or voter registration figures.
Redistricting should also be performed well in advance of elections, be
based on transparent proposals, and allow for public information and
participation.”
[2] Sax, Herschell, “Readjustment of Federal Electoral
Boundaries,” Electoral Insight, May 2002
[3] Elklit, Jorgen, “Electoral Institutional Change and
Democratic Transition: You Can Bring a Horse to Water, But You Can’t Make It
Drink,” paper presented to the European Consortium for Political Research, 1999
[4] Sax, Herschell, “Readjustment of Federal Electoral
Boundaries”, op. cit.
