Herramientas Personales
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Basic Ideas and Definitions of Voter Information, Voter Education and Civic EducationAs suggested in the introductory sections of this topic area, some distinction needs to be made between voter information, voter education, and civic education. Certainly, each falls along a continuum of educational activities in support of elections and democracy and is mutually reinforcing. And it would be correct to assume that voter education, for example, should be one component of a broader civic education programme. But the terms are not necessarily interchangeable and involve some nuanced differences in goals, audience, message, approach, timing, and/or institutional mandates. Briefly: Basic Voter Information refers to basic information enabling qualified citizens to vote, including the date, time, and place of voting; the type of election; identification necessary to establish eligibility; registration requirements; and mechanisms for voting. These constitute basic facts about the election and do not require the explanation of concepts. Messages will be developed for each new election. These activities can usually be implemented quickly (although sufficient planning is still required). Election authorities are typically required to provide this type of information, although contestants in the election and civil society organizations will also do so. Basic Voter Education typically addresses voters' motivation and preparedness to participate fully in elections. It pertains to relatively more complex types of information about voting and the electoral process and is concerned with concepts such as the link between basic human rights and voting rights; the role, responsibilities and rights of voters; the relationship between elections and democracy and the conditions necessary for democratic elections; secrecy of the ballot; why each vote is important and its impact on public accountability; and how votes translate into seats. Such concepts involve explanation, not just a statement of facts. Voter education requires more lead time for implementation than voter information and, ideally, should be undertaken on an on-going basis. This type of information is most often provided by election authorities and civil society organizations. In societies where there have been major changes to electoral systems, processes, and procedures, and in the case of the newly enfranchised and first time voters, both voter information and voter education programmes will need to thoroughly address both facts and concepts. Basic Civic Education deals with broader concepts underpinning a democratic society such as the respective roles and responsibilities of citizens, government, political and special interests, the mass media, and the business and non-profit sectors, as well as the significance of periodic and competitive elections. It emphasizes not only citizen awareness but citizen participation in all aspects of democratic society. Civic education is a continual process, not tied to the electoral cycle. Voter information and voter education, however, may be part of larger civic education endeavours. Civic education may be carried out through the school and university system, through civil society organizations, and perhaps by some state agencies, although not necessarily the election authority. There are some common information and educational features. These are discussed in Common Features of Voter Information and Education Meaning of democracyDemocracy is an exciting concept, and the increase in the number of states ascribing to democratic practice has signaled a different life for many who now live free from political oppression or authoritarian rule. For many, especially those in newer democracies, it is a complex term and coming to grips with its practical meaning takes a long time. A lot of information exists about democracy, and the duty of educators is to clarify this information at the appropriate level to the learners. As democracy is a concept incorporating aspects of behaviour, skills, knowledge and attitudes as well as questions of politics and power, it provides a very special challenge. The manner in which educators act and teach will influence the understanding people have of the concept of democracy. As a result there is considerable discussion in the literature of a democratic educational methodology - valuing interaction, participation and individual contributions to debate and discovery of meaning. There is some basic information that provides a good foundation for developing an understanding and appreciation of democracy. Defining Democracy Because democracy is a complex and contested concept, there will always be differences of opinion, despite some considerable convergence on a core definition. Most definitions of democracy focus on qualities, procedures and institutions. Of course, there are many expressions of democracy in the real world, and educators will want to guard against assuming that particular practices and procedures must be promoted and adopted universally. The learner's own understanding, experience and beliefs, and the history that their particular country has passed through, should be incorporated to create a definition that is meaningful and practical for their everyday life. Democracy does not consist of a single, unique set of institutions that are universally applicable. The specific form that democracy takes in a country is largely determined by prevailing political, social, and economic circumstances and it is greatly influenced by historical, traditional, and cultural factors. Most readings in democracy begin with identifying where the word came from and where the first, recorded and formalised practice of democracy started. They also provide definitions of democracy that have been used over time. Following are a number of definitions, from very simple to more complex. These definitions could be used to inform the definitions that learners have themselves formulated in discussion. "Democracy comes from the Greek words demos meaning "...government which is conducted with the freely given consent of the people."[2] "...a system of government in which supreme authority lies with the people."[3] "Rule by the people in a country directly or by representation."[4] "The form of government in which political control is exercised by all the people, either directly or through their elected representatives."[5] "The word Democracy's Beginnings The word democracy was coined by the ancient Greeks who established a direct form of government in Athens. All adult males would gather to discuss issues and they would vote by a show of hands. Slaves and women did not have the right to vote. This mode of government is time-consuming and it is impossible for large populations to meet every time a decision has to be made. Therefore, the step from direct democracy (in which people vote directly on issues) to representative democracy (in which the people vote for representatives or politicians who make decisions on their behalf) was inevitable as larger and more diverse societies established democracies.[7] Today there are forms of direct democracy such as referenda, petitions, plebiscites, and propositions, but these appear most often in the older and more technologically resourced democracies. Democracy Today Democracy exists to provide a way for people to live and be together in a way that is beneficial to all. Although many of today's democracies may not have existed before the Second World War, there are precedents in most traditional societies for a form of governance where the ideals in which most people believed guide rulers and communities in the way decisions and rules were made, and in the way members of the society were treated and lived together.
It has been claimed that democracy is a concept alien to Africa, a claim that rests on the confusion between the principles of democracy and their institutional manifestations. The principles of democracy include widespread participation, consent of the governed, and public accountability of those in power--principles that permeated traditional African political systems.[8]
The political transition to a democratic state as well as the restructuring needed such as voting and elections, the constitution, and an independent judiciary may be overwhelming for new citizens. For this reason, focusing on people's own experience will be a useful means to getting people to have a practical and common understanding of democracy. Educators who teach citizens about democracy should encourage people to express their views on the values that already exist in the way people interact with each other in communities in their everyday lives. From this collection of values the educator will be able to come up with a "custom-made" set of aspirations for and values underpinning democracy. This will form a usable basis from which to explore the form of governance that exists in their country and the extent to which it can be defined as democratic. Representative Democracy
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections that shall be held by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or the equivalent free voting procedures.
Voting is one of the mechanisms that guides a democratic state and keeps its leaders on track, and it serves to let the leadership know how they have performed. During elections, citizens vote for the candidate of their choice. The elected candidates or representatives become the government of the country. Elected leaders represent "the people" and govern for a set period of office. Representatives are chosen through elections based on the constituency or proportional representation systems, or on a combination of the two. Civic educators in a particular country would decide to emphasise and illustrate in more depth the type of representative democracy that has been chosen. In addition, they will want to explain it and also explain the differences between possible systems, their benefits and costs. Constitutional Democracies Most, but not all, democracies are based on a written constitution or a supreme law that serves to guide legislators and the laws they make. Written constitutions serve as a guarantee to citizens that the government is required to act in a certain way and uphold certain rights. The strength of a real democracy depends on certain fundamental rights and freedoms. These rights and freedoms must be protected to make sure that a democracy will succeed. In many countries these rights are found in and protected by a constitution. The constitution also sets out the structures and functions of the government. It provides the guidelines for the making of other laws. It is normally protected from amendment by the whim of a particular government by having a special majority required before any clause can be changed or through submitting any changes to voters through a referendum. Minimum Requirements for a Country to be Defined as a Democracy With an upsurge in the number of democracies holding free and fair elections and declaring themselves democratic states, a set of minimum requirements has been developed by some theorists. Elections on their own do not make a country democratic. The following list of minimum requirements has been extracted by a study of democracies and by reading various theories of democracy. It provides both a good overview of what democracy means and a standard against which to test whether or not a country is democratic.
If any of these conditions is not present, experts argue that the country is not truly a democracy. Criticism of Government Educating citizens about the democracy in which they live means that educators will provide them with some of the tools to analyse their circumstances. In some instances this may provoke a strong critique of the government, the powers it has, the way it functions, and whether or not it appears to be fulfilling promises made at election time. Educators will want to prepare themselves for dealing with this critique in a constructive manner so that learners also learn how to deal with their criticisms in a democratic and peaceful way. Notes: [1] Democracy For All, (South Africa: StreetLaw, 1995), 4. [2] Ibid, p4 [3] Ibid, p4 [4] Ibid, p4 [5] Civitas, National Standards for Civics and Government (Calabasas, CA: Center for Civic Education, 1994). [6] Namibia Institute for Democracy, Democracy and You: A Guide to Better Understanding (Windhoek: n.p.), 6. [7] ML Strom, Citizenship and Democracy (Pretoria: Idasa, 1996), 13. [8] Claude Ake, quoted in Reflections on Democracy (Pretoria: Idasa, 1997). [9] General Assembly of the United Nations. 1948. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 217 A (III). Basic Voter InformationInformation for Current Elections As noted at the beginning of this section, the term voter information is typically used to refer to the fundamentals of the elections, ie. where to vote, when, and how. Disillusionment about the efficacy of more substantive voter education programmes or suspicion that voter education somehow suggests partisan campaigning have resulted in a number of election authorities deciding that their job is primarily that of voter information. Information is the Role of the Election Authority Despite the fact that neither of the caveats need be true--voter education can be both effective and nonpartisan--there is something to commend the view that election authorities themselves should concentrate on voter information and leave more voter education tasks in particular, and civic education activities in general, to a wider range of organisations. 
Understanding Local Needs Because information is often local--polling site locations, lists of contestants, and so on--voter information programmes have to develop ways in which they can be responsive to local needs and local knowledge. In some cases, this is done by appointing information officers. In others, presiding officers have the role of providing local information. Important Role of the Media Whichever route is taken, such people need to develop good relations with the press. This media is often the only available route for getting information out to a large number of people in a short period of time. Press statements, press briefings, and press releases combined with the provision of documentation and materials to the press may be one of the most important tools of a local information programme (See General Media). Timing of Information
It is not always possible to manage an information programme so carefully that people get the information they need just in time to act on it. In fluid electoral environments, where the legal or regulatory framework or important election deadines and procedures are still in flux in the midst of an election and where the communications infrastructure may be lacking, this will present a major challenge. Where there are modern broadcasting and newspaper networks reinforced by a sophisticated advertising industry and solid communications infrastructure it may be possible to prepare messages at very short notice and to place these at precisely the right time. Where this same network operates in an environment where the large majority of people are reading and listening to or watching broadcasting media, then this information is efficacious. A lot is left to chance, however, that can actually only be dealt with by information systems that are repetitive and have built in storage and redundancy. Reaching People In Time and Accurately In poor societies, ownership of television and radio sets is limited. Electricity may also be a problem. In modern and affluent societies, audiences have become very segmented. In both these situations single channel information is risky. On the other hand, information that has storage utility--pamphlets and other printed materials, recorded messages, and so on that can be distributed and kept for reference--must remain timely and accurate. And there is no guarantee that the information will be looked at when it is actually needed. So there will always be a balancing act between getting accurate information to people just in time and getting information to the broadest possible audience. Prepare a Detailed Programme In a general sense, voter information programmes have to manage timing quite carefully and a full and detailed programme will be necessary. If the voter information is novel, because of significant changes in election procedures or because it is a founding election, then there will need to be a reality check on all aspects of the programme. This reality check can be done by making sure there is good feedback from organizations and educators working out in the field; or from an information and complaints hotline. Surprisingly, election authorities often assume people have the information in an accurate form just because it has been made public. Even Just in Time Programmes Take Time to Plan Finally, in addition to the general difficulties expressed above about getting information to people just in time, production and distribution of materials does itself take time. And some formats will require more time than others. The production and airing of a radio spot may be accomplished more quickly, for example,than the preparation, printing, folding, packing, delivery, and distribution of a leaflet. While there are possibilities for super-human effort, one should not expect miracles. And the only way to achieve super-human efforts and meet unrealistic deadlines is to spend money. The more complex the information programme and the more tight the deadlines, the more likely it is that costs will increase. Voter Education Messages There are no standard messages that have to be communicated in a voter information programme. All of them have to be specific to the particular election. There are, however, a set of categories that should be covered. Time and Date of Elections A standard piece of information that can appear in any published material will be the hours of voting and the dates on which voting takes place. While this may be standard across the country, it may not be in larger countries. So the information may need to be regionalised. While the information may begin on a low key basis, as the date approaches it is likely that it will attain greater prominence in communications both from the election authority and from candidates. Times and Dates of Voter Registration More complex, because of the many potential variations across regions and jurisdictions, will be information about the times and dates for the registration of voters. In particular, there may well be a temptation to provide all information regarding registration in one source. This should be avoided, and voters should receive only the information they need while the more detailed information on inspections, challenges, review of the lists, and so on, should appear in separate more technical publications. It should not be assumed with any information campaign, and especially not with voter registration, that a legal notice as required by many laws will be sufficient. Information needs to be available where people are, in a format that attracts their attention, and in terms that they can understand. Location to Register Perhaps the most confusing aspect of voter registration, unless it is possible to do it entirely by mail or through some other telecommunication, is to find out where to register. Unless the authorities have chosen to identify specially established centres that may later double as polling sites, it is likely that registration will take place in a wide variety of venues. As a result, a standard banner that can be displayed publicly should be available to indicate the place. Such banners also alert the public to the fact that registration is taking place. In addition to this, other forms of mass communication should be used. Perhaps the least reliable means of communication of messages in this particular category are by mail and telephone, because there may be a lack of confirmation that the message is received by the voter. Registration drives are designed precisely to deal with the fact that people move. Location to Vote Polling sites are usually identifiable, once a voter gets within eyesight. But the one in eye's view may not necessarily be the polling site for that particular voter. In towns where there are many polling sites, and the nearest may not be the correct one, this can cause considerable confusion. Confusion may also arise when numerous polling sites are located in one place. Where elections have been conducted regularly in the same venue; and where registration has taken place in the venue where the person is required to vote, such information may be less important. Where polling site locations are still being established after registration has taken place, such information is imperative. Yet information is not so easy to communicate, because it is different for each set of voters. A variety of methods is used to deal with this, such as:
In each of these cases, some form of personal communication is essential, and there are strategies for providing information upon request and unsolicited. General voter information programmes will want to advertise at an early stage that people must ascertain where they are to vote, and must provide them with information as to how to do this. Special Voting Services Depending upon legal allowances, there may be a variety of special voting services offered to voters. These might include absentee voting, early voting, or voting by a mobile ballot box on Election Day. In order to use any of these services, it is likely that voters will have to make either a verbal or written (an in some cases an application) request. And, there will likely be a specific timeframe in which this request or application must be made. For this reason, it will be important for educators to inform voters about the existence of special voting services, to identify which voters are eligible to use these services, and to convey the timetable and means by which such services can be requested. Documents Required Once people know where to vote, they have to get to polling sites with the necessary documents that will prove their identity and qualification to vote. Different administrations make use of different documents, and the selection of documents suitable for proving identity in order to register may be different from that required on election day. In both cases, there needs to be a concerted communication campaign well in advance of election day so that potential voters are able to get their affairs in order. Those countries that have national identity document requirements, or introduce voter identity cards, may need some time in order to produce these. While this may not affect the majority, it is likely to affect the young who have still not obtained such documents, immigrants and refugees, and other marginal groups who may not have a full set of necessary documentation. Correctly Marking One's Ballot When voters enter the polling site, they will also need to know how to correctly mark their ballot so that it will be counted at the end of the day. In countries where there is a consistent method for marking the ballot that has been used over some period of time and where there have been no significant modifications to ballot design, such efforts will likely be most necessary for first time voters. In countries where there are inconsistent methods for making ballots for different types of elections, where a new method for making ballots has been introduced, where there have been major changes to ballot design, where some governing structures are being elected for the first time, or where the introduction of new technologies has impacted the procedure marking and casting one's ballot, there will need to be an education program directed at the entire electorate. And, if there are provisions for dealing with spoilt ballots, the means by which voters can turn in an improperly marked ballot in exchange for a need one will also need to be explained. Ballot Security Measures For some elections, there may be a need to introduce novel ballot security measures to ensure the integrity of the voting process and the outcome of the elections. There are a number of reasons why voters need to be informed about ballot security measures. The first is that some of these measures will directly impact how they are processed once they enter a polling site. One example of this would be the use of indelible ink and optical scanners to identify voters who have cast their ballots. Since this type of activity may be new to a culture, some negative perceptions or even fears may also need to be overcome to ensure that the ballot security measures do not have the result of keeping people from the polls. At the same time, other ballot security measures - such as the use of special paper, seals, counterfoils, or halograms - may appear to be only the concern of poll workers. However, the whole point of ballot security measures is to increase the level of integrity of the electoral process and voter's confidence that their vote will count (just once!) and that the result will accurately reflect the will of the people. So, in order to raise public confidence levels, a concerted effort will need to be made to inform people about the ballot security measures being undertaken. And, this must be done prior to election day as a means of encouraging people to turn out to vote. Candidates The election authorities will have to communicate the list of those candidates who are legitimately nominated or registered to run for election. Such a list may only be posted on a notice board outside a magistrate's office or that of the returning officer. But it is likely that it should be published more widely through the press. Some election administrations issue a publication that gives basic information about contesting parties, normally submitted by the parties themselves, and this information serves to inure voters to the propaganda wars and "mud-slinging" that parties may wage. This may also be done through the use of posters in polling sites on election day. This is a particularly important aspect of any election conducted in countries where sectarian or ethnic conflict has led to geographic separation of parties and "no-fly" zones. Level of Government for Election Voters who do not understand the rationale behind an election, and the intended consequences of the result are at a serious disadvantage. It's hard for them to make informed decisions and easy for them to be misinformed. So suitable information about the body or office being elected and its roles and responsibilities, the manner in which votes will count and in some cases trasnalte into seats, and the system of government that will result are all essential in a voter information programme. While a voter education programme may go further in assisting citizens to understand these systems, an information programme may just give some basic information sourced from other government departments. Codes of Conduct Finally, elections are contests for power. Many election laws, therefore, establish codes of conduct for political parties. Or they might list possible ways in which the election law can be broken and the penalties involved. Citizens are the best watch dogs against candidate abuse, but only if they know what to expect from parties. Widespread circulation of codes of conduct will assist in reducing conflict. In like manner, elections are a service provided by the state, or on behalf of the state, by an independent body. Citizens have a right to know what type of service they can expect; and the publishing of such information also guards against administrative mismanagement and possible malfeasance or fraud. Germany, Berlin: information on the election by European Parliament is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 2.0 Generic License. Basic Voter EducationOverview Education in support of the electoral process has become known as "voter education" where the primary target is the voter. There are a number of other areas of education required if an election is to be successful, but these may variously be conducted by political parties and election administration officials. Voter education, on the other hand, is considered to be a separate and discreet function. It is usually identified as a function of the electoral authority and is occasionally subcontracted by them to private companies and civil society organisations. It is also fostered by public interest organizations independent of any mandate by the election authority. What is Voter Education? At its core, voter education is an enterprise designed to ensure that voters are ready, willing, and able to participate in electoral politics. It has been assumed that this entails election literacy and confidence that the electoral process is appropriate and efficacious in selecting governments and promoting policies that will benefit the individual voter. Is Voter Education Sufficient for Democracy? As indicated elsewhere in this topic area, voter education is essential to ensuring that voters can effectively exercise their voting rights and express their political will through the electoral process. If voters are not prepared or motivated to participate in the electoral process, then questions may begin to arise about the legitimacy, representativeness, and responsiveness of elected leaders and institutions. At the same time, voter education is a very focused undertaking. It is targeted at eligible voters and addresses specific electoral events as well as the general electoral process. While voter education is a necessary component of the democractic electoral process, it is not sufficient for democracy. Voter education needs to be supplemented by on-going civic education efforts in order to achieve the democratic participation and culture that flows from and is, in fact, the rationale for periodic elections. Civic education employs a broader perspective than voter education. It is concerned with citizens, rather than voters, and emphasizes the relationship between active citizenship and democratic society. It is understood that citizens must engage the political process rountinely, not just at the time of elections (for more on this see Civic Education) Certainly, participation in elections and the status of "voter" have a special weight in transitional countries holding founding elections and where the right to vote has been obtained through social struggle. As the democratic world moves toward a universal franchise, however, voting is viewed as one of the many ways in which citizens participate in and support democracy. International Comparisons The scope of voter education efforts required in any given country will depend upon a variety of factors. Does the country have a long history of democratic elections, or is this a founding or transitional election? Is voter registration mandatory or voluntary? Who is responsible for voter registration? Has the franchise been extended to include new groups of voters? Have their been changes to the system of representation or the voting process? Do the electoral process and political institutions enjoy the confidence of the electorate? Is the election campaign open and competitive? Have voter education efforts been undertaken in the past? Is there an on-going civic education effort? The answers to all of these questions and more will impact the nature and reach of the voter education programme. Messages and Methods Helping citizens understand and participate in elections--other than as a contestant or supporter of a contestant (an important and under exploited form of education)--requires concentration on a few key concerns. These seem to have somewhat universal significance, although each election may have its own special features. Educators will also have methodological considerations and these are addressed in Potential Programme Elements. Various programme elements may be appropriate depending on the resources available and the objectives that have been set by the education organisation or, alternatively, by the organisation sponsoring the programme. The methodological variations available demonstrate that voter education falls between the two concepts "voter information" and "civic education". Whose Responsibility? While voter information is certainly the responsibility of the election authority, voter education can easily be viewed as the responsibility of both of the election authority and civil society. A variety of other government agencies may also have some role in informing and educating citizens. The mandate of the election authority or other government agencies may be determined through law, while civil society organizations may have, as part of their mission, a commitment to voter education and political participation. That there is a need to educate people to take part in elections is not at issue. Whether these people are children or adults, there are many educational needs that relate to the conduct of elections. But there are also the needs related to active participation in competitive politics. One educational activity involves the use of mock or parallel elections. In Chile, for example, children accompany their parents to the polls on Election Day and actually cast ballots in a parallel election. In other cases, mock election activities may either be narrowly focused on voting behavior or incorporate the entire electoral campaign. Having children run for election or campaign for others provides important lessons that cannot be learned throuch an approach that focuses solely on Election Day activities. Aims of Traditional Voter Education Traditional voter education aims to create of a climate of knowledgeable participation by all potential voters in a forthcoming election. Is also seeks to enable potential voters to cast their votes with confidence. These objectives may also be achieved through other interventions, and educators will want to establish programmes that work in conjunction with initiatives that address such issues as voter security, basic voting procedures, accessible voting stations, and lively but nonviolent and least intimidating campaigns on the part of candidates. Balancing voter education programmes against these other interventions is important in ensuring that budgets are not inflated. Costs of voter education programmes can and should be based on cost-per-voter estimates. It may be argued, and is on occasion argued, that elections, however expensive, are cheaper than war or endemic community conflict. This is true, but the purpose of democratic elections is to ensure ongoing periodic elections, and this cannot be done extravagantly forever. Costs need to be weighed carefully and programmes developed that reduce costs. Sometimes this may require constraining the objectives that really have to be achieved by the programme in order to have an effective election. Timing of Information The timing of voter education may - or may not - be the same as that of a voter information programme, although they are likely to run concurrently at some points. In particular, the timing of a voter education programme may depend upon the duration of the programme, the institution undertaking the programme, that institution's mandate or mission, the parameters of the programme, the types of instructional materials being developed, and the needs of the group(s) at which it is being targeted. In settings where there is no permanent election authority and where resources are limited, a voter education programme may only be conducted at the time of elections and in conjunction with any voter information efforts. In some cases, voter education may be initiated somewhat earlier than voter information, particularly if major changes are being made to a country's system of representation and legal framework for elections, where the franchise is being extended, and where significant changes are made to political and electoral processes. In countries with longer standing democracies and where there is a permanent election authority and sufficient resources, however, voter education may be an on-going activity. Depending upon the mandate of the election authority and the mission of certain civil society organizations, voter education may be handled through a broader civic education program as a component thereof. If conducted throught the school system, a voter education short course may also be incorporated as part of a broader civic education curriculum. This course might be offered to children of various ages, or only to those approaching voting age. The amount of time spent on voter education in this case may also depend upon the depth and breadth of the course in question. Role playing, mock campaigns and elections, and learning exercises both inside and out of the classroom may be included. Activities might be limited to a particular class or include all classes and a number of grades. There might even be competitions between schools. The more thorough and complex the course, the greater amount of time that will need to be dedicated. Additional information on simulations can also be found under Simulations
Voter educators make use of certain standard messages. Standardisation implies two things.
There are four general messages that all voter education programmes will communicate. This will require that educators work with content specialists to ensure that the messages are discussed in ways that have meaning for the particular country in which democracy is being developed. Each country has its own history, and this history provides organising themes and democratic myths as well as procedural and principled nuances that will require a different treatment from that prepared even in a neighbouring country. It is possible, however, to outline the concerns that are likely to be addressed in each area.
Developing these arguments is essential, as it is possible that there will be those who may think that elections could be conducted without such conditions being in place. In India, the election authority must determine whether such conditions are present before allowing an election to proceed. But there have been other times, in other places, when elections have been used to develop credibility and apparent legitimacy for a government that has no intention of ensuring that the necessary democratic rights are present during an election period.
It is not enough, however, merely to concentrate on roles and responsibilities. Educators must also consider the rights to a free and fair election. Helping voters understand these rights facilitates election monitoring by all citizens and not just specialised groups. It ensures oversight of both candidates and the election administration.
Apart from the numbers game, voters need to be made aware that each individual vote has weight in determining the rights that they have over the elected party or representative once the election has been won or lost. If a representative relationship cannot be formed between citizens and elected officials, citizens may begin to feel that their vote does not, in fact, count for much.
In these circumstances, examples of matters that are secret, or that cannot be found out, provide educators with potential metaphors for the voting process. And there may be alternative approaches. Perhaps the most powerful is when elections are repeated and no dire consequences befall voters. But election legislation will have to back up the message by considering carefully the manner in which counting of votes takes place and results are announced. An individual vote may be secret, but a community preference may not, and this can have equally important consequences. Other Messages Each election will also have an additional set of standard messages appropriate for the particular election. In many cases, these messages will embrace a catch phrase that can be used for shorter communications such as stickers, posters and clothing. These messages need to be prepared by educators in a form that can be widely used. They may even form part of a fax data bank so that educators with access to the correct telephone and fax facilities can dial in and obtain copies of the messages for further use and distribution. Those countries with e-mail and Internet access can provide distribution through these means. In addition to these standard messages, there is an additional standard message tool that has obtained wide currency and may even be the most important and widely distributed document prepared by an education programme. This is the Frequently Asked Questions document. Frequently Asked Questions From the very beginning of an election, educators will start collecting lists of questions being asked in workshops, in telephone calls, and by election staff as they are recruited and trained. These questions should be catalogued and categorised. When there is an initial list of about ten questions, succinct answers should be prepared and the document containing the question followed by the answer made available in as many ways as possible. This frequently asked questions (FAQs) list may be altered many times during the course of an election. Additional questions will be added, and additional information will be available that might change existing answers or add to them. Someone should be given the task of keeping the list up to date and distributing it. Because it will change often, and may be sent out by fax or e-mail, or even distributed at training workshops, it is essential that every version be numbered, dated, and in the last days before an election even timed. If the FAQs are being prepared by an organisation or by the electoral authority, it should have a cover that gives all the details of the organisation that prepared and distributed it, together with ways of making direct contact for further information. There may be separate FAQs for election administration staff and for educators. It is important to understand that different people have different questions. Whatever the case, this summary of all the concerns that people have about the election and the short and authoritative answers will be a tool that can have an impact that will more than justify its preparation costs. Common Features of Voter Information and EducationThere are some important distinctions between voter information, voter education and civic education activities, while at the same time one form of education may flow smoothly into another and, in many cases, may be a subset of the broader effort. At the same time, there are certain features that are common to both voter information and education. Both must incorporate their own version of the election calendar and timetable. Both can make use of various stakeholders, including political parties (see Political Parties in Voter Education), election officials (see Election officials in voter education), and or the civil soceity sector to increase the reach of the programme and enhance its effectiveness. Both will be concerned with not just with voting on election day, but with Voter Registration. And finally, both will have to consider ways in which Election Sites can be used to reduce costs and improve the effectiveness of the programme. As a result of this overlap, this topic area deals simultaneously with voter information and education unless otherwise noted. Civic education is not the primary focus of this topic area but it occupies an entire section of its own. Since voter information and education are often an important component of civic education programmes, however, some civic education products have been included in the sample materials section. Explaining electoral systemsElectoral systems are a human invention. It is inevitable that any specific electoral system, having been invented under certain conditions, to achieve certain ends and encourage certain values, is now having an influence on the political system within which citizens live. It has not dropped from heaven, although it may be protected within a constitution, and therefore it is itself a matter for public debate and, if necessary, political reform. A civic education programme will provide citizens with some of the arguments in favour of particular systems and the strengths and weaknesses of their own system. This will have been done without undue proselytizing for one or other system in case this severely undermines citizens' faith in their own electoral system or unduly disadvantages and stereotypes those who promote the merits of one or the other. Without this more general education, public debates about electoral systems can become irrationally heated, and very rapidly move from consideration of the context within which elections must take place and the appropriate system for the time to a factionalism reminiscent of the ‘bigendians’ and ‘littleendians’ of Gulliver’s Travels. Once an electoral system has been selected, new voters will need an explanation of how it works. When a system is reformed, educators will have a particular challenge in explaining the new system, given the deep attachment which people develop towards their own systems and their imperviousness to change. Electoral systems seem to have the same visceral attachments as currency and weights and measures – generational change seems more efficacious than education. Educators are often fascinated by politics and elections – it is a vocation and a hobby, and the arcana of electoral systems seem particular seductive. There is a temptation to turn opportunities for educating people about a particular electoral system into jargon-full journeys through increasingly detailed minutiae. The needs of the audience fall away in discussions of quota formulae, intricate constituency mapping information, negotiations between parties and election management bodies over list construction during vacancies and so on. While certain groups of people need to know these things, educators must first establish the needs and level of the audience. The educators’ trap Are there certain basics which are essential?
Of course the reason why a country has a proportional representation system, a first past the post system or a single transferable vote system – to mention the most popular parliamentary systems - may be shrouded in the mists of time. A country may have an electoral college rather than a direct election for President for reasons more related to lack of certain technological advances such as telephones, safe and fast cross-continental transport systems such as motor cars and aeroplanes, reliable postal services and other later forms of communication than any immediate compulsions. But nevertheless, there are social conditions and values which keep the present system in place if it has existed before, or reasons why it has recently been adopted. These are worth explaining because they will address important political concepts of fairness, the history and struggle for expansion of suffrage, representivity and accountability.
Different electoral systems have different consequences for what will confront people in the voting booth. Will they see a list of political parties or a list of names of candidates? Will they get the opportunity (as in Sweden) to select a political party by choice of ballot paper and then see the list of candidates for that party so they can make some preferential choices amongst those candidates? Voters should not be surprised when they get into a polling booth. They should know what choice they are being asked to make, especially if they are required to make multiple choices, whether on one complex ballot paper or a series of ballot papers as might happen in mixed systems, or in multiple elections taking place on the same day. Knowing what choices they will be making on voting day provides the voter with guidance as to what they should attend to during the campaign. Are they going to have to make a binary choice – this party or that, this candidate or that – or will they be expressing a range of preferences. In the first case they may develop some decision criteria based on exclusion, in the latter they may attend to different aspects of party manifestos which interest them. Irrespective of the ways in which voters come to their preferences, they will adopt strategies based on the manner in which the electoral system confronts them with choices.
Once educators have mastered the conversion mechanisms, which are more complicated for PR and STV systems but which can also have complexities in FPTP systems in regard to tied votes, for example, or in direct presidential elections in regard to run-off elections, they should find ways of explaining these through a combination of metaphors and scenarios. PR systems are often explained in terms of individual sports where participants receive prizes for coming first, second or third and so on. Educators talk about winners and losers in FPTP systems. In developing appropriate metaphors, care should be taken not to heap too much praise on those who succeed - after all they will have to represent even those who choose not to vote for them - and to work out ways in which election losers can retain respect and realize that all is not lost, otherwise the possibility of spoiling can increase. Scenarios take examples either from the real situation or from dummy situations – normally safer – and show how different numbers of votes turn into different numbers of seats. PR systems particulary benefit from such examples, but mixed systems, which are becoming increasingly popular, are also often explained best in this way – where topping up to obtain proportionality can have different consequences depending on the number of FPTP seats won.
Political parties are becoming increasingly sophisticated in their management of campaigns and are using survey and demographic data to plan their interactions with potential voters. However, FPTP systems are more likely to be characterized by local campaigning in which the candidates are introduced and profiled, and in which their merits are considered as well as their platforms. At the end of an election, the voter is going to recognize one or other of these candidates achieving elected office. They may see differences in the coverage of local media – focusing on their candidate, and the nationall media – focusing on party leaders and party manifestos or ‘marginal seats’ where a difference is possible or likely. PR systems brand the party and, in countries where ballot papers include the face of the party leader, that person as well. Profiling the party is everything, and while the lists of candidates can and should be evaluated, it often takes a back seat. Voters will want to know whether it is really worth spending time interrogating a candidate about their personal politics, if the party caucus is going to be all powerful. On the other hand they may well want to find a maverick candidate if they feel that his or her success, whether as an independent or within a party is going to shake up the establishment.
Too little attention is given in voter education to the outcome of an election, not in the balance of power alone but also to the governing implications. In PR systems choices for many small parties can make it difficult to establish stable governments. In FPTP systems, the role of the successful candidate in continuing to represent the constituency in its relations with the state may be key to how a voter chooses. Voters need to know how the parliament will function, what powers it and the individual representatives have, and its relationship to any separately elected executive. The election calendar and timetableEvery election obviously has a timetable. While voter education may be an ongoing activity, there will be a moment when an election is declared and a date set. Educators should have a calendar of election milestones and tailor their programme to accommodate these dates. With this in mind, a detailed implementation plan for the voter education programme should be developed and attached to the election calendar. Ideally, the election calendar should be fixed prior to the initiation of the voter education programme. In some developing countries and transitional societies, this will not always be possible, however. In this case, educators outside the election authority will want to maintain open and routine communication with election officials to stay on top of new deadlines or changes to previously set timetables. The election calendar should include all dates that are stipulated in law or through regulations. Educators will then need to consider these milestones to determine which directly affect voters and to assess necessary educational demands and implications. The educational programme has to prepare people to participate in the electoral process. Different people participate at different times and, in some cases, in different ways. In theory anyway, the educational programme may address all these preparations. While voter education and information are typically aimed at the general electorate (see The General Electorate), it is important that it also be aimed at high impact groups (see High Impact Groups) and at assisting smaller target groups in their participation (see Marginalized Voters and Groups with Special Needs). Educational Demands Amongst the occasions that may be of particular interest to voters and that may require their participation will be:
Educational Implications The first of these is obviously the announcement of the election date. This inevitably triggers frenetic activity by parties, raises public consciousness of the election, and starts discussion in the media and in social settings of the contest. Such an announcement, especially in situations where it is anticipated that a substantial voter education programme will be needed, could be combined with display and broadcast materials setting out the requirements for eligibility to vote, including registration processes. From that moment onward, there will be similar, if slightly less significant, moments. If these are factored into the calendar, it will be possible for the education team to develop programmatic interventions suitable to obtain publicity, to multiply the impact of the programme, and to develop the synergy which is necessary in order to increase impact, reduce effort and limit costs. Political Parties in Voter EducationPolitical parties compete. Voter education is assumed to be a neutral or nonpartisan activity. So there is often a general operating assumption that voter education has nothing to do with political parties. This is incorrect on two counts. First, individuals and groups of individuals learn a great deail about elections and about democracy from their interactions with government and their political experiences. Second, parties have a selfish interest in getting to voters and, therefore, can be a cost-effective conduit for ensuring that voters get the necessary information they require in order to exercize their vote. So political parties and their supporters, campaign offices, and general staff are, in fact, potential educators. The voter educator's task is to manage this inevitable and important resource in ways that benefit citizens.
Political parties have an interest in making sure that their supporters get to the right polling site at the right time and cast their ballot so that it is counted. They may not be interested in giving this information to people who do not support them, but those people may be approached by other political parties. So educators will want to develop strategies to make sure that all political parties have accurate information about the election process at their disposal. This is not the only information that parties have an interest in conveying accurately. All parties will want their supporters to know:
Of course, there may be some political parties that have an interest in keeping people ignorant of their constitutional and legal rights, about the electoral process, and about democratic practices. Nonetheless, broad-based voter education that is both accurate and empowering will be in the interests of some if not all political parties.
There are some who consider getting out the vote (i.e., basic voter information and motivation) to be an activity that is entirely the responsibility of political parties. Indeed, this is the tradition in many developed democracies. The election authority may have no role in getting out the vote. Their responsibilities stop with the provision of information about where, when, and how to vote. There are some very good reasons, however, why voter education should not be entirely left up to political parties and why neutral, nonpartisan programmes are essential. Parties may have limited capacity. Or, especially in transitional societies, the resources and abilities of political parties will be unbalanced. This is typically referred to as an "uneven playing field". Under such circumstances, parties in power or those that inherited the spoils of a one-party system may have a better grassroots network through which to disseminate information. There may be no party formation amongst significant parts of the population. Or, the situation may be so polarized that the collaborative nature of election politics has not been understood either by parties or by citizens. In this case, some trustworthy source may be necessary against which to judge the information being received from the parties. As election campaigns become more expensive and targeting more sophisticated, many potential voters are simply ignored by political parties. Beyond the fact that certain people will not be reached by the contestants, there will likely be information that parties do not want to convey. So nonpartisan programmes have to supply this information.
Monitoring of party conduct and the development of good behaviour through legislation, regulation, rewards and punishments may not seem to be an educational task. But it is. It can be done either by the election authority itself (and certainly some aspects will be the responsibility of election monitors, tribunals, and courts), or it can be done by citizen groups with adequate training. Or it can be done by party agents, again with adequate training. It may also be possible to include it in general public voter education information about the roles of parties during elections and the mechanisms by which they can be held accountable for their actions. Equipped with such information, even individual citizens can assist in keeping parties honest. And this honesty then supports the voter education programme, and any broader civic education programmes, by developing voter trust in democracy and increasing commitment to electoral politics. Election officials in voter educationSpecific Information and Education Functions Election officials will appoint staff to manage and conduct voter education and information programmes on behalf of the election authority. The organization of these offices will likely depend on the nature of the election authority, ie. is it a permanent or temporary body, the extent of election authoriy's legal mandate to conduct voter education and/or the parameters of a given programme. The staff organization will also be determined by whether or not the programme is being developed for a specific election or as part of an on-going voter and/or civic education programme and whether or not it is directed only at eligible voters or also includes outreach to children. Whatever the case, there will be staff tasked with the specific function of voter information and education. There will also be staff, however, who are responsibile for media relations, election official and poll worker training, and who handle human relations management. Finally, there will be the commissioners and executive officers of the authority who will also have a public communications role. Coordination of communications and the development of an education programme will be an important task within such an election authority. Educators should have a role in this and not be seen as merely functionaries. Everything that the election authority communicates has an impact on the perceptions, attitudes, and knowledge of voters. Close management of this enables the authority to limit duplication of effort and waste of resources. Of course, the national election authority is only one part of the election administrative hierarchy. Depending upon how well developed and resourced the hierarchy is, there may be educators, public relations officials, and trainers at lower level election commissions. Managing their interaction and communication will also be important. Impact of Organizational and Public Behaviour The education programme, however, has to be considered within a larger context. Every official associated with the election authority has a role to play in educating the public. In fact, they do this whether or not they intend to. Their behaviour in dealing with the public during voter registration, handling of complaints and managing of polling sites can be educational or can undermine voters' motivations. It will be necessary for election authorities to ensure that their behaviour is at all times nonpartisan and professional, and that it conforms with the public messages being communicated about the elections and about the election authority itself. Apart from this general proviso - what one might consider the hidden curriculum of the election authority - there is also an important educational function in which all officials can participate. And they need to receive sufficient training and information in order to adequately fulfill this role. For this to be effective, training and information needs to be prepared in a timely fashion. In addition to timely information, the early appointment of poll workers, in particular, and presiding officers will ensure that there are people in local communities who are identified with the election process and are therefore able to serve as a resource for the voters who live near them. Election Officials as Educators There are always two ways in which officials can treat clients. They can behave as though the client must know or find out the information they need in order to obtain the service. Or they can provide them, either verbally or through good information and signage, with the knowledge their clients require. It is possible that this can be done at any stage in the election process, even down to interactions with voters in the polling station. Certainly, if officials are not only trained to do their job but are also provided and familiarized with voter education packages or a set of frequently asked questions (FAQs), they can greatly assist the voter education programme. Use of Election Sites for Voter EducationThere are two reasons why election sites should be used as primary opportunities for voter information and education.
Distribution of materials can be incorporated with other election materials. Advertising can be displayed without cost. Giveaway materials can be distributed by existing staff. And the same staff can fulfill an information function at the same time as they are engaged for other purposes.
Voters are drawn to the site and thus one of the primary purposes of voter information - to ensure that people know where to go - and one of the primary purposes of voter education - to ensure trust in the process and the administration - are served while other objectives are also being achieved. It is perhaps obvious that voting sites can be locations for information and education (see Voter Education at Voting Sites). Perhaps it is less obvious that goverment administrative offices, registration centres, or counting and tabulation centres can serve similar purposes (see Election authority offices and Voter Education at Counting stations It may also be less obvious that they will do so whether or not election authorities intend it. The locations of offices and centres, their accessibility to the public, the service which is rendered, and the pride with which an office is either prepared or merely thrown together all convey lessons for the voting public. To the extent that they are visible and seek to make themselves understandable to nonvoters, they also serve to increase awareness and, therefore, the number of possible voters in future elections. Election authority officesElection authorities need to consider ways in which their own offices can be used to promote elections and contribute to voter education and public confidence. The headquarters of the election authority are likely to be seen as a symbol of the electoral process. The outward appearance and internal decor of the building can communicate the serious, nonpartisan and professional approach that is appropriate to elections. Spaces that appear disorganized, poorly maintained, intimidating or extremely grand can all create negative perceptions of the election authority and the electoral process. The Message of the Building and Staff While election authorities in many developing and transitional settings may have little or no control over the buildings that they are assigned and may have few resources to devote to making the space more workable, public accessibility and a professional and helpful staff can go a long way to create positive impressions. In addition to these implicit messages, authorities may also want to consider more explicit ways in which they can assist in the educational programme. Such explicit ways may range from displaying posters and banners outside offices to notice boards, material distribution centres, or resource/information centres in public places within the building and visitor programmes where educational programmes are conducted on site. A Place for Education Where the latter is possible, these programmes may vary from simple workshops requiring only public advertising and a seminar room to exhibitions and outreach programmes. Such programmes provide a regular and ongoing locus for educational programmes in support of elections. Those election authorities that are able to raise budgets for these programmes are extremely fortunate. Even the smallest office, however, can display a poster, can house a small exhibition of voter education and elections materials, or can have an information desk where the public can obtain leaflets or other information products. It is important that the approach to such displays be educational rather than bureaucratic. The purpose is to inform and educate the public, not to overwhelm them with the importance or minutiae of election administration. Election authorities will need to consider ways in which they can train their staff to establish such public information programmes. And they will want to reward them for initiative in ensuring, at relatively low cost, that their offices are providing a service to the public. Voter Education at Voting SitesVoting sites provide a last minute opportunity to get information for those who did not get it in any other way. While the amount of information that can be provided may be limited, every care should be taken to make use of this low-cost opportunity. Voters may have had limited contact with a voter education programme during the run up to the election. From this, they may have only taken away the message that they should register to vote and go to the voting site on election day. A decision will have to be made as to whether the voting site itself, either before or on election day, will provide last minute voter information. As it is likely to do this anyway, if only in the form of staff members managing queues and ensuring that people have the correct documentation ready, it is worth considering ways in which this can be done effectively. The following information is normally given to voters arriving at a polling station: Basic Information
It may also be necessary to provide signs relating to parking in the vicinity of the station. Basic information may be supplemented by additional information such as: Additional Information
This information could be supplemented by more general information about the governing structures for which voting is taking place, the services being rendered by that level of government, and the manner in which the results of the election will affect the formation of that government. These more general matters may make a difference to the ability of the voter to make a reasonable and rational choice and reduce uncertainty and insecurity about the election. Apart from information, polling stations will also want to present an ambience that supports the voter education messages that have characterised any education programme. Appropriate slogans or other messages may be displayed. Voting Climate The manner in which all this information will be provided should be considered very carefully in order to make sure that it is accessible, clear, meaningful and absolutely non-partisan. Merely pasting up a series of posters along a wall because there is a surplus of these particular posters is not sufficient and may indeed be counterproductive. Once a voting site has been set up in the appropriate form, election workers will want to provide basic components for voter information. Planning While all election workers should conduct their business in the voting site in a way that is conscious of the public, there may be those who have a particular role in providing information, either to all voters or to those who seek assistance.
Amongst the possible roles for those who give information to all voters are ushers and queue walkers. Such people will assist in directing voters to queues and from queues to voting site entrances. Where the queues are long, they may make arrangements to deal with elderly or disabled voters. They may also help prepare people for voting by checking that they have the correct documents, by answering queries about the voting process, and by seeking out and reassuring voters who appear diffident. Such staff should be given additional voter education training beyond that normally given to the rest of the voting site commission. This training should include very close examination of questions of privacy, secrecy of the vote, and nonpartisanship. All of these need to be managed particularly carefully at voting sites not only to ensure a good voting experience for the individual but also to place the voting site commission and the voting process above suspicion. Inside the voting site, those who seek assistance with voting or who have queries in regard to one or other aspect of the voting procedure may be assisted only if prior arrangements have been made for such assistance in the electoral legislation and regulations. There a determination will be made as to who should provide this assistance and in what way their assistance will be monitored in order that it be clearly understood as assistance and information regarding procedures rather than determining for whom a person might vote or influencing them in that regard. Voter education programmes will work with offices or deparments responsible for voting site arrangements to ensure that the signs available for a voting site provide the information stipulated by the regulations. Because of this, discussions should start at the earliest possible opportunity in the election preparation process. Once agreement has been reached as to what is preferable and what is permissible, those planning the design and layout of voting sites and providing information to presiding officers on how to set up voting sites should also take into account the need for information and the possibilities of the site providing an educational experience.
Posters illustrating voting procedures may be prepared for display outside the voting site, or they may even be affixed to voting booths. Signs on desks may mention not only the name of the particular desk (e.g., voters' lists) but may also illustrate or explain precisely what the voter is required to do at that desk. Once again, signs should have a cumulative effect, and care should be taken to display them in appropriate places and to make them in appropriate sizes (see Posters and Banners). Too much information can be confusing, especially if it is going to be viewed by a broad range of voters with different levels of literacy. In situations where it is not possible to mail information to voters that assists them in preparing to vote, or where additional information is required at the last minute, it may be possible to prepare and distribute leaflets to people as they enter the queue to vote. Such information may replicate that which is displayed, providing basic information about voting procedures and about the voting site layout. It may list the rights of voters, and it, or a similar leaflet handed out after voting, may thank people for turning out.
As voters leave, materials that provide additional information such as the time when the results will be made available, how votes translate into seats or information on government may be given. This is one of the few opportunities for government or the election authority to guarantee contact with the majority of voters, if not all of them, especially in developing countries. Contact with voters is always likely to be limited no matter how intensive an educational programme. As a result, it may be that people arrive at voting sites with questions still unanswered. It is possible to use the time while people queue to conclude voter information and to provide services such as checking voters' lists.
Such services can be offered by information desks outside voting sites. These might be on the perimeter or they may be allowed in the general election area. They are likely to include copies of voters' lists and lists of adjacent voting sites so that people who are in the wrong place can be redirected. They may also be staffed with people who can conduct impromptu workshops and demonstrations for individuals and groups of individuals. If the logistical arrangements and the participation of local civil society volunteers allow for such a service, last minute voter education messages can encourage people to get to the voting sites where they will find assistance. In this way a great deal of time and energy on the part of voters and of educators can be saved. This is the one place where voters will want to be, where they will be motivated to learn, and where they may know what it is they want to learn. A very brief input can become a most effective one, directing people to more information. Voter Education at Counting stationsDepending upon how the election process is structured in a given country, ballots may be counted at polling sites and then tabulated at successively higher levels of election commissions, or, after voting has been closed, delivered to centralized locations. For the purposes of this discussion, counting stations will be used to refer to any location where ballots are being counted or tabulated and results determined. Counting stations are restricted to specific categories of people. But they can also become gathering places for the public, especially if results are going to be announced from these locations. So educators need to consider what information is required and how to maximise the opportunities that this very important election moment provides. While there are fewer members of the general public at a counting station, there are likely to be relatively heavy demands for good and accurate information by certain groups of people who will having access. These may include the candidates and their agents, accredited election observers and journalists. Although it is likely that such people will have received a briefing from their respective organizations and can receive additional information directly from the counting officials, their need for information that is straightforward and which describes their roles, responsibilities, and rights should not be underestimated. Information for Those Inside the Counting Site
Information for Those Outside the Counting Site Counting votes and declaring results provide an opportunity to enhance the importance of elections in ensuring peaceful transitions of power and in encouraging the acceptance of results and reconciliation among winners and losers. While the majority of people are likely to experience this moment through the radio or television where these are available, many will be present in the streets. Arrangements should be made for amplification of announcements, their subsequent display, and for the display of any final results. Some countries post official protocols of results, whether for the polling site or aggregated totals at higher level election commissions or counting stations, on their premises for review by the public. Certified copies may also be made for distribution to candidate representatives, party agents, election observers, and journalists. The details of publicizing results and the limitations thereon are discussed in Progress Reports; Cumulative Statement of Votes and Publicising Election Results Role of Voter Education in Registration ProcessMaking sure that people understand the voters' list (voting rolls, voter registry), decide to register, are able to register and can register correctly poses significant challenges for educators. Voter registration has become an essential prerequisite to the act of voting. With a few transitional exceptions where it was perceived that voter registration could not be achieved, or where a decision was made to err on the side of inclusion, voters have to be registered in order to vote. Establishing a voters' list and then maintaining it in an accurate way provides a number of challenges for voters, contestants, and administrators. [1] As a result, educators will take a keen interest in the regulations and systems being instituted to manage the voter registration process. In many instances, registration has come with qualifications. In the past, these were often used to disenfranchise some eligible voters. But in countries where the onus for registration is on the individual, rather than the state, even administrative arrangements can create hurdles that can ultimately have the affect of disqualifying voters. These can require considerable motivation to overcome. Some of this motivation can be encouraged through education, some must come through political organizing, and some will only come when the electoral system and government are perceived to be efficacious, where representation makes a difference. Without the incentive to register, and mechanisms to register, and the possibility of having one's registration properly recorded, education programmes that encourage individual voters to register may have little impact. Indeed, political lobbying as well as education for registrars and other responsible officials may be as important as the voter education programme itself. Once the systems for voter registration have been determined, educators can establish a programme. The programme should deal with:
Individuals also belong to political parties, and to citizen groups, and they will therefore want to understand:
In situations where registration is continuous, such education may have to be done through existing systems of education and governance. Because voters' lists are closed to changes at some point prior to an election, citizens need to be regularly reminded that they need to register or check their registration. This should also be a component of any voter education directed at young people who will be registering and voting for the first time. Where registration is seasonal or the register is subject to a major revision before an election, there might be a proposal to conduct a national voter education programme in order to support the registration process. Such a programme should be considered in all aspects as an educational intervention and educators should therefore go through a full educational design cycle (see Design Cycle) Pre-Election Educational Campaign There are special considerations because of the very specific nature of a voter registration programme and the urgency of a likely educational campaign. Examples of registration campaigns can be seen at Budapest, Hungary - Local Government Election Registration. (These are manuals that may take some time to download.) In particular, educators will have to try to ensure that potential voters get to the registration points at the right time. In addition, voters will have to understand the importance of voter registration. And this is not an obvious matter when the primary beneficiaries of voter registration apparently are the administrators rather than the voters themselves. Motivation, therefore, becomes an important aspect of the educational programme. Unlike elections where there is a contest that serves to energise voters, registration to vote may be met with an apathetic response causing voters to miss the necessary deadlines. Notes: [1] Details of how to establish and maintain a voters register are reviewed in Voter Registration. Basic Civic EducationThis topic area deals with voter information, voter education and the related concept of civic education. In many instances, voter education forms a component of a civic education curriculum. The existence of an on-going civic education programme can certainly lay the groundwork for - and enhance the impact of - voter education initiatives.
There are two temptations in this enterprise. One is to consider everything to be civic education, and for it to be established as the integrating principle and sine qua non of all educational endeavours. The other is to restrict it to a small corner isolated from the rest of life's learning processes. Both are being tried in practice, if not considered in theory. Neither are particularly helpful. The balance that is required for citizens to both feel empowered and actually be empowered to participate in founding, building, and sustaining democracies appropriate to their own context is the next challenge for democracy activists and educators.
Practitioners of civic education have chosen a range of different terms to describe their work. They choose names for the educational approach that they believe conveys more appropriately the aims of such education. Each of the names, or terms, selected has its own dilemmas and its own operating assumptions. But an analysis of the concept through consideration of the terms does provide some insight into the concerns of the civic educator.
Programmes defining themselves as education for democracy concern themselves with preparing people for democracy on the assumption that it must be established and then maintained. Amongst the content of such an educational programme will be the skills and understanding necessary for this establishment and maintenance. Educators may conduct education for democracy programmes in undemocratic societies and see this as a social intervention in ensuring that they become more democratic. The definition of democracy, therefore, becomes very important both in determining what should be taught and also in the actual educational programme. Such a definition might be a classical one: but it might also be a more radical one, including aspects of industrial democracy, consumer rights, and social justice.
Once a society has established a code by which citizenship is established, educators may consider that people require education in which they become more like the ideal citizen. The rights, roles and responsibilities of citizenship will be emphasised, and this educational intervention may actually be linked with the naturalization process by which immigrants become citizens. As such, it is likely to invoke serious discussion of the legal position of citizens and the manner in which their identity and relationship to the state is defined. The general approach may well be assimilationist, but there will also be those programmes that consider matters such as those expressed in the next paragraph and maintained separately only for the purpose of this discussion.
Citizenship can be defined not solely or narrowly in legal terms but rather in terms of the manner in which people exercise their responsibilities towards other people and the state, or where a state does not exist, to the construction of communal life. Education in support of citizenship, expressed as a set of relationships and responsibilities incumbent on each person and the responsiveness of the state towards this person and the members of his or her community, will consider the skills of active citizenship. Such skills, when expressed, make a person a citizen. Before that they are only a subject.
Those who consider the conduct of public life in the polis or polity, however established, to be important may describe their work as political education. Where politics exists, individuals need to develop literacy (the ability to read and understand the political life around them) and they need to learn ways to participate in that political life.
A final form of civic education is best described as leadership training. Such training presupposes that leadership can and should be learned and then exercized by humans. The programme will consider a wide range of leadership skills and relationships. They are likely to consider questions of personal and political power with a strong ethical and value-driven approach to power. There are two strands of leadership education. While they have some things in common, and historically appear to have been driven by similar concerns, they manifest themselves in different societies or different strata within societies.
Many churches, clubs, youth clubs (the Scouting movement is one example), and philanthropic societies such as Rotary provide leadership training that focuses on skills development, ethics, social virtues, and so on within their organisational framework.
Achieving leadership: On the other hand, organizations with less access to power in the society tend to use leadership training programmes that are highly experiential in methodology, and, perhaps unsurprisingly, conducted with those who are denied leadership in society.
Here are at least five standard messages (or themes) that should be covered in a civic education programme.
Background The purpose of civic education is to encourage citizens to participate fully in the political life of a community and country committed to the fundamental values and principles of democracy. With this as a working purpose, those planning and conducting civic education programmes have developed considerable variety in their syllabi or curricula.
As an example of what educators might prepare to guide them in their discussion of this subject area and to make available in educational materials, a document has been prepared that deals with the definition of democracy, see Meaning of democracy. The same document also suggests ways in which the subject matter could be used in educational events and conveyed to groups of learners.
See Basic Voter Education for discussion of this subject and the importance of dealing with both rights and responsibilities. Individual citizens have limited power in relation to a state unless that state respects and protects the rights of that citizen. Without that protection, it is difficult to speak of responsibilities. Indeed, the responsibility of the person is likely to be to force that state to recognise human rights and democracy.
A citizen is empowered to the extent that he or she understands how government operates and has criteria for judging its performance. As government has increasingly come to be seen as a process in which the state, elected officials and individuals acting in concert govern collaboratively, it has been called governance. Good governance not only requires citizen participation, it educates those citizens about democracy and participation.
Democracy has values. More importantly, democracy relates to practices, rituals, and procedures that allow citizens to make choices, to ensure the presence of a representative government, and periodically to provide an opportunity to judge the effectiveness of that government.
Each country is likely to have its own set, however new, of democratic institutions and laws. These have to be acknowledged and understood if people are going to be able to make use of them, assist in refining or altering them, and change or disestablish them.
Direct DemocracyThere has always been a tension between the processes of representative democracy and its periodic elections - producing legislatures which then take on the decision making processes in interaction with citizens - and more direct forms of decision making. So, while most countries have procedures for referenda and plebiscites, these are often limited to moments of extreme importance. However there are some countries where direct democracy – usually defined as a decision making process, and these are of course not the only processes which enrich democracies – is more often used. Switzerland is one such country. Certain states in the USA allow citizen propositions to find space on ballot papers under certain conditions. Civic education during national referenda or plebiscites can easily be partisan. It is very difficult to conduct any form of education which does not require a weighing of options, and it is a very short distance from that to weighting choices – especially as referendum questions are often phrased to force simple choices on complex issues. Of course there are certain procedural matters which can form part of an educational programme – what is a referendum?, how do you take part?, what is the question?, why is it being asked?, and, particularly importantly, what will the consequences be of the various choices?. And in some cases, it will be possible and necessary to develop educational material which offers arguments for each side of the issue. Where the institution providing the educational material has a non-partisan reputation it may be possible to develop such material. Alternatively educators can merely ensure that voters are not blocked from receiving and understanding the more partisan material being provided by the various camps. Because referenda are seen as answering big questions which effect the future, and in the process have the potential to disappoint significant portions of the society if they lose, these are often tense moments in even the most stable of democracies. In fragile states they can be the precursors to crisis. Educators will take responsibility for preparing people for winning or losing, will focus on alternative ways forward and will conduct programmes which encourage political tolerance. Once a referendum is settled, educators will want to develop programmes which consider the consequences and meaning of the decision taken – always difficult to determine. Recent referenda in France and the Netherlands have demonstrated that outcomes can be uncertain and that there is often no plan B. In British Columbia an innovative experiment in a different sort of direct democracy (to consider the complex and highly emotional matter of electoral system reform) saw the calling up of a citizen assembly to represent the citizens at large. This jury type approach to public decision making provides a very different, more process oriented decision making and consultative process, and because of this allows educational process both for the participants and those who wait outside the assembly room. |
