The primary and most expensive media available for educational and information purposes are those that have a national impact. With changes in information technology and ownership, different media have to be considered in different ways by people placing information or developing strategies to communicate specialized messages.
This section covers the following:
- television
- radio
- segmentation of audiences
- newspapers
- magazines
- media synergy
Television
Television should be considered as a medium capable of conveying complex messages and emotions to large audiences. In the majority of countries, ownership of television sets has resulted in the individualization of audiences: at best, a family and friends may be together when a broadcast is made. Often people will be on their own. In some societies, there may be a culture of communal viewing, but this seems to diminish as personal incomes increase.
As a result, producers and broadcasters have to make use of techniques to keep viewers watching, particularly if advertisements rather than programme content is being used. These techniques are taken on the whole from the experience of general television programming. Educators make use of advertisements, documentaries (especially personal stories and celebrity recommendations), soap operas or running serials, game shows, and so on.
All of these are costly to produce and take a high degree of planning to maintain at the necessary standard. Because television is a hungry medium, there is also a substantial demand for new material on a regular basis.
Finally, in relation to programme material, it is important to understand that the material will have to compete with commercially produced, and often international quality (of production, if not content) programmes. Television is unforgiving, and television watchers will turn off or may not even turn on the socially important but boring or amateurish.
Educators also have to prepare material that, while authoritative, does not look lavish or extravagant because it is produced with taxpayers' money.
Television viewership is regularly monitored by advertisers and by broadcasters. Ratings (or indices establishing viewership patterns and numbers) are used to determine when to place advertisements and the cost of these. In general, the cheapest time is that when smaller audiences or audiences with lower buying power are watching. These audiences can be important for education planners, who should analyse viewer patterns in more detail to discover whether, for example, women or the aged are watching.
In some cases, broadcasters may provide free time for voter or civic education messages; in other cases, this may have to be purchased directly or sponsored by companies. When sponsorship is sought, care has to be taken that the relationship between the message and the sponsor is a congenial one. Company credibility over its treatment of workers, consumers or the environment can undermine the message. Moreover, political activity or endorsements by the sponsor can also undermine the nonpartisan nature of the message and the educator. Educators therefore need to discuss their own commitment to non-partisanship and the neutrality of the sponsor in advance.
It is not only the reputation of a company sponsor that can undermine a message. The reliance on celebrity endorsements by pop performers, professional sports stars, and so on, can be undermined at considerable cost because of indiscreet behaviour by a single individual. Such behaviour may only be a sudden affiliation with one or other political parties; or that a stand on some issue is co-opted by a party platform. Whatever the case, the impact on a nonpartisan programme can be destructive.
Amongst the most watched of all programmes are news broadcasts. Educators are extremely fortunate if they can create news or have the advantage of a large budget, free airtime, or a sponsor that enables them to place advertisements next to news broadcasts.
Before making a large investment in television production in transitional societies, educators and even donors will want to consider how local resources and infrastructure, or the lack thereof, may affect the impact of televised messages. In countries experiencing routine power failures due to inadequate energy supply, educators would be better advised to invest in radio (which can be battery operated) and print advertising
Radio
Next to television, radio provides the largest audience. In the majority of countries, and amongst poorer people in most countries, radio has a greater reach than television.
Radio has an advantage because it is considerably cheaper to produce and broadcast programmes and it is possible to replicate programmes in a variety of languages at low cost.
Of the options open to educators, radio poses some constraints. Serials, documentaries and magazine programmes similar to those on television are possible, and these often develop loyal audiences. But many radio stations have adopted programme schedules that are highly specialized and these have to be taken into consideration. The most frequently used formats are talk radio and music and news.
Talk radio makes use of a host and telephone-in audience participation format. In this format, all programming provided by educators must either be through advertisement or by the provision of guests for interview and answering of listener calls. This is a vital and educational format, but guests have to be well briefed and may be called upon to give information and make comment on a broad range of topics. Fortunately, radio is an ephemeral medium and the occasional slipup by an ill-prepared educator or election management staff member may be tolerated, but it is not advisable.
Music and news programmes are much harder to deal with. There is almost no way to break into this formula other than through the airing of advertisements, or good use of news releases.
Segmentation of Audiences
Both radio and television are becoming segmented. They may have a national or international reach through cable and satellite broadcast systems. Even broadcasters without access to satellite may have a footprint or reach that falls across national borders.
However, with specialized programming, and with changes in media ownership, it is increasingly possible to send different programmes to different audiences (typically through regional breakaways from national programmes or vice versa) or to ensure that the programming attracts only particular audiences.
As a result of this segmentation of audiences, television and radio need to be considered within a general portfolio of media, and each channel or station needs to be assessed according to its audience profile. Getting a message broadcast on a national television or radio channel may seem a major achievement for a voter educator, but the actual impact of that message may not be as great as it would be if different strategies were adopted. This is particularly important when the cost of the educational programme is considered. National prime time (the highest viewership period) television will certainly produce a tremendous impact, but unless the coverage has been obtained cheaply (through news coverage or by supplying a guest on a highly rated programme for example) the cost can also be high.
Education can be spread through a large range of people, making them resources for their own communities. But educators also need to weigh the impact of a highly centralised strategy (television and radio programmes and advertizing spots can be organized by a small professional team) against a more complex but decentralized face-to-face strategy.
Should the choice be made in favour of a centralized strategy, it would be important for educators to obtain good advice from media agencies about the best mix. There is also a need for educators to focus on ensuring good news coverage of the election itself, and they may use their advertising budget to encourage attention to their programme.
Newspapers
National newspapers fall into two categories: dailies, which have very tight production schedules and deadlines; and weeklies or monthlies, which tend to carry more in-depth articles and background to the news. Both will also carry special supplements of an educational nature or will run ongoing stories and coverage.
During election periods, newspapers often devote large amounts of space to coverage of candidates and contestants, and to the election process itself. In some cases, newspapers may have a track record of support for a particular party or faction, or they may choose to endorse a particular party or person in an election.
The advantage of using newspapers as a major part of an educational strategy is the durability of the product. Not only is a newspaper read by the purchaser, there will inevitably be adequate statistics on the number of other readers for that particular purchase. And, while most people recycle or discard newspapers daily, educational supplements and special features are often kept longer.
Indeed, because of the low cost of printing an overrun (additional copies of a newspaper or section of a newspaper) it is possible to negotiate to use a newspaper to produce and distribute the necessary educational materials for a widely dispersed team of local educators.
There are disadvantages to newspapers as well. Newspaper readership, especially of national general publications, appears to be falling even in highly literate societies. In many transitional settings, newspaper readership may be limited to more urban, educated and financially secure strata of society. Also, in societies with high levels of illiteracy, newspaper readership is associated with literacy; and, although a number of newspapers may publish special supplements for non-literate or semi-literate readers, they rely on mediators to ensure these are passed on.
Also, in transitional settings and closed societies, actual or artificial shortages of paper and ink, confiscation of newspapers, revocation of printing licenses, and even seizure of printing facilities and equipment can present real problems. It is important to assess the risk factors in such settings before proceeding with advertisements or articles in newspapers.
There is a need to consider national readership patterns before decisions are made on how national newspapers can contribute, whether through advertisement, opinion and interest pieces, interviews with journalists, press releases, or special supplements. When the intention is to make newspapers a major part of the strategy, the use of journalists who understand the demands of newsrooms is essential, as these are quite peculiar and often impenetrable and mystifying to the general educator.
It is also important for educators to concentrate on briefing reporters and editors about their plans, and continue to provide good information that will enhance the coverage they give the elections.
Personal and regular contact is essential, and can go a long way to ensuring the media report accurately about the work of election management bodies and the issues that educators consider important.
Magazines
There are a tremendous number and variety of magazines. They are produced quarterly, monthly, weekly, in regional and international editions, in syndicated titles, and for highly specialized audiences. Some magazines aspire to the quality of technical and specialized journals. As the technology of layout and production becomes more widely dispersed and more acceptable, some technical and specialized journals aspire to the accessibility of magazines. With the continued developments in technology and the increased access to the internet across the world, there has also been a significant increase in the number of newspapers and magazines published online.
Each magazine, has a different editorial policy and a specialized audience. When educators can gain access to these magazines there are many payoffs: popular readerships, longevity of access to the material, and attractive layout. On the other side, the audience may be too specialized and the article may become outdated quickly (most monthly magazines have a three-month production schedule).
Educators who can produce standard articles and have them placed in general and well-read magazines over the period of their campaign have a substantial aid in their general programme strategy. At the very least, magazines can be used to encourage voters to contact the election management body and get information. Because of the slow lead times and high costs of magazine advertising, there are few examples of these been used.
Media Synergy
Media ownership patterns in the market economy that influences almost all countries have resulted in an increasing attempt to create synergy between different media. This same synergy has often been sought by educational campaigns. So, radio programmes are supplemented by magazine-like publications; newspaper reports on television debates; and television anchors reading and commenting on the day's newspaper headlines and interviewing journalists, rather than the primary sources for news coverage.
This increasing combination of media can produce some deadening public effects in civil and political life. But when factored into an educational programme, these combinations can also produce remarkable cost savings and increase coverage and impact of a particular learning programme.
