Educators are generally well versed in managing content, and it is likely that instructional materials will reach their production stage with the content issues clarified (see Printed Materials).
However, there are production issues that have to be considered for their educational impact on any material.
These are illustration, the relationship of illustration to words, and colour, particularly in the printing process.
What Illustrations are Best?
The following guidelines apply to instructional material for participants who may not have a high level of visual or pictorial literacy:
- Avoid pictures with depth.
- There should be a moderate amount of detail.
- Eliminate background and unnecessary detail.
- The important objects should have enrichment of detail: texture, gradients of texture, shading, etc.
- Portrayal should be realistic, no impressionism or expressionism.
The following are ranked in order of usefulness:
- blocked-out photographs (photographs with the background eliminated). They provide good contrast, realistic cues and details for identification of the objects portrayed, and the neutral background eliminates distracting details
- photographs
- silhouettes
- line drawings, especially in the form of diagrams or cartoons, are visual shorthand impoverished of all details
Pictures can be more expressive and informative using some features of Egyptian art. That is, drawing in two dimensions rather than using perspective to create three-dimensional effects.
Other tips include the following:
- Use consistent physiognomy, clothing, complexion, etc. in depicting people.
- Action should be simplified.
- Behaviour should be depicted in accordance with the viewers' and not the producer's traditions.
- Pictures of people and places should be relevant to daily life and environment for proper recognition (be in the correct cultural context).
- Colours and shapes must be carefully chosen because of symbolic meanings attributed to colours and shapes which can distort the intended meaning. Especially the use of colours in the context of an election as some colours may be associated with political parties. The use of symbols, themselves, can also be tricky and may be best avoided.
Illustrations versus Words
Illustrations are interesting in their own right, compared with words that are not particularly interesting as things in themselves - it is the ideas conveyed by the words that matter. Thus, illustrations may attract or distract the reader.
- Illustrations are good for conveying concrete images and providing support material when teaching a concept, as a way of avoiding technical jargon, and for conveying visual and spatial concepts (e.g. relative size of objects).
- Words are good for conveying abstract ideas and for communicating concepts that have already been learned and for conveying propositional concepts.
- Illustrations and diagrams are good for conveying ideas that have to be considered simultaneously. They allow learners to make multiple discriminations easily.
- Words are possibly better for conveying ideas that have to be treated sequentially when the order in which the ideas are encountered is critical (a poem or set of instructions) though cartoon strips are useful for instruction.
- The positioning of illustrations is very important and should be tested if necessary.
- Pictures should not be used when the information can be readily conveyed in words.
- -dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects cause some difficulty in some cultures.
- Translation of time into space includes learned conventions: authors must either teach the code or be sure readers know it. (This is a crucial point in teaching the mechanics of voting).
- Illustrations of a process involving separate steps or actions should have at least as many individual pictures or frames as there are main steps or actions.
- Illustrations of things (especially line drawings) are more easily remembered than their names.
- Illustrations are usually better with captions. Labelling of illustrations aids classification and helps long term recall.
- Simple line drawings are best for instructional material particularly for signifying general concepts (a stick figure "man"), while highly detailed illustrations can be used for particular concepts ("a foreign election monitor").
- People are attracted by relative complexity and change.
- Beware of problems of ambiguity, literal or figurative meaning, depth cues, action, changes in scale, etc., especially for illiterate people.
- Reading illustrations, tables, diagrams, graphs and symbols has to be taught. People have to learn to interpret the conventions of illustrations in much the same way as they have to learn to read. Authors and designers must therefore have knowledge of the background experience of their potential readers.
- Place diagrams and illustrations where readers will see them and repeat them if necessary.
Colour
In some cases, colour may be unnecessary and can cause problems. Some points to consider are:
- Do not use too many colours or too few (e.g. when using it to depict or represent several functions).
- Colour codes must be understood and these are culturally constructed although there appears to be some more universal constructs.
- 8.5 percent of all men and 0.5 percent of women are colour blind.
- If the material refers to a colour, it should have a name in the language of the learner. Use the general name of colours as opposed to colour variations that may not be very popular (for instance, purple is more popularly known than lilac)
Colours and Printing
The following happens with certain colours when printed:
- Pale colours are almost invisible for words or fine lines.
- Dark colours appear almost black for words or fine lines.
- Bright colours dazzle for words or fine lines.
For contrast, black on white is best. Legibility of printed text suffers on coloured paper or when used over illustrations or photographs. Strong colours or black and white patterns distract if too close to text.
Materials producers should allow for what will happen to the page if it is photocopied, unless they are able to control whether it is copied or not. Educational materials are likely to be copied, and it may be that this will be encouraged to extend their usefulness and range of distribution.
