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Encyclopaedia Preventing Election-related Violence Factors that may trigger electoral violence External factors

Unethical media reporting

Ethics involves what is right, equitable, fair, just, dutiful and/or responsible. Ethical media practice is important because of its high level of public impact.^{^[1]} In conflict-prone societies in particular, unethical media reporting can exacerbate conflict and trigger violence.^{^[2]} Unethical media reporting may be the result of political control and abuse of media^{^[3]} and/or irresponsible journalism that pursues sensationalism.^{^[4]} Manifestations of unethical media reporting are particularly dangerous in the context of highly contested electoral processes in conflict-prone societies.^{^[5]}

Empirical cases:

Zimbabwe general elections 2008. Ex-President Robert Mugabe is widely viewed as having long used the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Cooperation (ZBC) to disseminate propaganda,^{^[6]} discredit the opposition and enhance the ruling party’s image.^{^[7]} Since the 1980s, journalists expressing an independent voice have been harassed, arrested, detained or murdered.^{^[8]} During the 2008 general election the ZBC, which dominates national radio and television, was criticized by civil society for using hate speech to intimidate the opposition and their supporters. In particular, during the course of the campaign it was criticized for allegedly promoting hate speech, notably in TV news and current affairs programmes.^{^[9]}
Interrelated factors: provocative and violent actions by political parties (internal); the presence of non-state armed actors (external);^{^[10]} contested electoral law (internal); rejection of the election results (internal).[11]
Kenya general elections 2007. Following the liberalization of public media from 2002 onwards, certain media began to ‘operate freely and sometimes recklessly and irresponsibly’.^{^[12]} During the 2007 general election, radio broadcasts using offensive language and hate speech are said to have contributed towards the buildup in tensions that led to the deaths of over 1,500 people.^{^[13]} According to the Kenyan National Commission on Human Rights (KNCHR), which examined the role of the media during the 2007 elections, media houses took sides ahead of the election: it further found that many editors had become ‘compromised’ and some media houses ‘sensational’, unnecessarily alarming their audience and ‘inflaming their passions’.^{^[14]} Many local radio stations (vernacular radio) were identified as having permitted the use of hate speech during public debates, talk shows or phone-in programmes hosted by irresponsible journalists, entertainers or disc jockeys.^{^[15]}
Interrelated factors: social and political exclusion (external); changing power dynamics (external);^{^[16]} gender-based discrimination and violence (external);^{^[17]} inadequate electoral security arrangements (internal);^{^[18]} provocative use of the media by political parties (internal);^{^[19]} poor management of election results (internal).^{^[20]}

[1] A definition of media ethics can be found at <http://www.environmentalhistory.org/billkovarik/media-law-coms-400/3-ethics/>, accessed 28 June 2013.

[2] Rolt, Francis, ‘The Media: Reaching Hearts and Minds’, in Paul van Tongeren, Malin Brenk and Juliette Verhoeven (eds), People Building Peace (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc., 2005), pp. 175–7.

[3] Frohardt, Mark and Temin, Jonathan, ‘Use and Abuse of Media in Vulnerable Socities’, USIP Special Report no. 110 (October 2003), pp. 1–4, available at <http://www.internews.org/sites/default/files/resources/media_peace_full_report.pdf>, accessed
27 June 2013.

[4] Ramadhan, Shamsia, ‘Peace Journalism in Post-election Kenya’, New Routes 2/2013, available at <http://life-peace.org/resource/number-2-2013-hope-amid-hardships/>, accessed 2 May 2018

[5] Atuobi, Samuel Mondays, ‘Election-related Violence in Africa’, Conflict Trends (ACCORD) 2008/01, p. 12, available at <http://www.accord.org.za/images/downloads/ct/ct_2008_1.pdf>, accessed 26 June 2013.

[6] ‘Zimbabwe’s State TV Services Faces its 1st Rival’, Financial Times, 25 July 2013.

[7] Moyce, Andrew, ‘The Media Environment Leading up to Zimbabwe’s 2008 Elections’ (no date), p. 44, available at <http://www.kas.de/upload/dokumente//2010/05/Defying_3.pdf>, accessed 28 June 2013.

[8] Ibid, p. 44.

[9] Media Monitoring Project Zimbabwe, ‘The Language of Hate’ (no date), p. 4, available at <http://www.mmpz.org/sites/default/files/articles/The%20Language%20of%20Hate%202009.pdf>, accessed 28 June 2013.

[10] International Crisis Group, ‘Negotiating Zimbabwe’s Transition’, Africa Report no. 51, 21 May 2008b, <https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/southern-africa/zimbabwe/negotiating-zimbabwe-s-

transition>, accessed 2 May 2018

[11] Electoral Institute for Sustainable Democracy in Africa (EISA), ‘Election Observation Mission Report Zimbabwe’, EISA Election Observer Mission Report No. 28, 2008, <http://www.eisa.org.za/pdf/zimomr08.pdf >, accessed 25 July 2013

[12] Kenya, Republic of, Office of Public Communication, ‘Commission of Inquiry into the Post-Election Violence’, 2008, <http://www.communication.go.ke/media.asp?id=739>, accessed 16 June 2013

[13] Roberts, Mara J., Conflict Analysis of the 2007 Post-election Violence in Kenya (Charlottesville, Va.: New Dominion Philanthropy Metrics, 2009), available at <http://www.ndpmetrics.com/papers/Kenya_Conflict_2007.pdf>, accessed 30 June 2011; and Institut Français de Recherche en Afrique (IFRA), The General Elections in Kenya 2007, pp. 2, 11, 172, 202, 227, 228, 369.

[14] Office of Public Communication, Republic of Kenya, ‘Commission of Inquiry into the Post Election Violence’, pp. 298–9, accessed 16 July 2013.

[15] BBC World Service Trust, The Kenyan 2007 elections and their aftermath: the role of media and communication, April 2008, p. 4, available at <http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/kenya_policy_briefing_08.pdf> (accessed 12 August 2013).

[16] International Crisis Group, ‘Kenya in Crisis’, Africa Report no. 137, 21 February 2008a, <https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/kenya/kenya-crisis>, accessed 2 May 2018

[17] Ibid.; and Roberts, Conflict Analysis of the 2007 Post-election Violence in Kenya.

[18] Alston, Philip, ‘Report of the UN Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions. Addendum: Election-related Violence and Killings’, UN document A/HRC/14/24/Add.7 (18 May 2010), p. 38, available at <http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/E002895AFBE42ABA492577370007FFE9-Full_Report.pdf>, accessed 1 September 2011.

[19] Mbeke, Peter Oriare, ‘The Role of the Media in Conflict and Peace Building in Kenya: Draft Literature Review Report’, April 2009, p. 13, available at <http://www.internews.org/pubs/kenya/LiteratureReview_ReportingPeaceKenya_20090415.pdf>, accessed 21 October 2011.

[20]

Independent Review Commission [Kriegler Commission], Report of the Independent Review Commission on the General Elections Held in Kenya on 27 December 2007, 17 September 2008, <http://aceproject.org/regions-en/countries-and-territories/KE/reports/independent-review-commission-on-the-general>, accessed 4 May 2018