Herramientas Personales
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Technologies with Electoral ApplicationsAn election is a complex, multi-faceted event happening on a given date and subject to precise laws and regulations. The entire process is organised by an electoral management body (EMB). Each country structures and names EMBs in a variety of ways, but their responsibilities are similar. To fulfil their roles and mandates, an EMB needs staff, equipment and funding.
EMB responsibilities include:
Depending on the electoral system and applicable legislation, an EMB might organise and plan the voters’ registration as well as the registration of political parties and candidate.
Several technologies are available to assist EMBs, including telecommunications technology, computer hardware and computer software, among others.
Telecommunications technology refers to telephone, radio, television, wireless and satellite communications as well as computer networks and the Internet.
Computer hardware and software include computing devices, open source and proprietary office automation aids such as word processing, spreadsheets, databases and multi-purpose programming tools. Open source is software that can be freely obtained or downloaded and involves minimal or no annual maintenance costs. There may be, however, development and management costs. Proprietary software often requires an initial acquisition fee, correlated to usage and an annual maintenance fee.
Other groups of technologies include devices such as counting machines, mail sorters, printers, projectors and screens.
Technologies for specific electoral tasks, such as boundary delimitation, voter registration, regulation of party and candidates, reaching voters, voting operations and corporate management are considered separately in this topic area.
The discussed technologies include among others, electronic and mechanical voting systems, scanning systems, identification systems, the Internet and office automation.
Electronic and mechanical voting systems
There are different types of electronic and mechanical voting systems. Some use technologies developed specifically for electoral purposes. Mechanical voting machines were used widely in the United States, and to a lesser extent in a small number of other countries around the world, but are being replaced by electronic voting machines. Different electoral electronic devices are already in use in several countries and their use is expected to increase.
The main types of electronic voting systems include:
Scanning
Electronic scanning systems are used to convert data marked manually on paper into electronic form. While scanning is often used to capture voting data written into machine-readable ballots, it can also be used to capture other data, such as lists of electors who have voted or information shown on forms.
There are four main types of optical scanning technologies:
Identification systems
Several stages in the election process need to reliably identify a person: when a person votes, when a person registers to vote or when an employee needs access to a restricted place.
Some countries rely on the voter’s self identification, without the need of an electoral identification document. Other countries may require specific electoral identification system.
As electronic voting becomes more widespread and more automated, particularly where voting is introduced on the Internet or by telephone, these identification systems become crucial to ensure that only eligible voters are able to vote.
There are different types of identification systems:
The Internet
The Internet—a worldwide information network linking computers, accessible to the public with the appropriate technology —can be used for electoral purposes in a variety of ways. Some of the electoral applications of the Internet include:
Office automation
Personal computer-based office automation software has become an indispensable part of election management in many countries. Word processing programs have replaced typewriters; spreadsheet programs have replaced ledger books; database programs have replaced paper-based electoral rolls, inventories and staff lists; and personal organiser programs have replaced paper diaries.
Word processing and spreadsheet programs developed in the 1970s are cumbersome in comparison to the sophisticated office automation programs currently available. These programs have empowered ordinary office workers by enabling them to complete tasks in-house that were once completed off-site.
For example, desktop publishing programs allow relative novices to produce professional-quality publications, instead of using professional typesetters and printers. Database and spreadsheet programs running on high-powered personal computers allow ordinary users to input, store and use data in ways that once would only have been possible on large main-frame computers operated by programmers.
Specialised electronic/mechanical devices
In addition to standard computers and electronic voting devices, there is a wide range of specialised electronic/mechanical devices that can be used for electoral purposes:
Non-electronic Innovations
Some uses of technology for election purposes are not electronic or mechanical, but involve the innovative use of manufactured materials such as:
Telecommunications TechnologyTelecommunications technology refers to distance communications, such as radio, telephone, television, satellite, microwave, data communication, and computer networking. In the 21st century, it is essential to the conduct of most elections.
Depending on the country, all or some of these telecommunications technologies are used by the electoral administration to transmit information: via voice in telephony and radio, documents in faxes or data including text, sounds and images, in computer networks.
Telecommunications technologies continue to evolve rapidly and are becoming increasingly affordable and reliable to communicate voice, data and even images between distant and isolated places around the world. This facilitates the organisation of elections by enabling communication of electoral officers stationed at remote locations with their respective regional and national offices.
The main components of a telecommunications system are: the transmitter, a device that originates communication; atmosphere or cables, the medium over which the transmission takes place and the receiver, the end point of the transmission.
The transmitter transforms or encodes the data/message into a signal, which is transmitted to one or more receivers that decode it to make it understandable to the user, a person or a computer or other piece of hardware. This transmission can be bi-directional, if at the end of the transmission path there is a combination of transmitter and receiver. In the case of a “broadcast” signal the transmission goes only from one transmitter to many receivers, such as a radio or television set.
As the signal travels through the transmission medium from the transmitter to the receiver it is likely to be degraded or even modified by the interference of other signals. Most of the time, the decoding mechanism is capable of recovering the message and making it understood by the final user of the message.
Specific security issues are associated with the use of telecommunications systems. In particular, there is the possibility of undesired or unauthorized modification of the transmitted signal or message, between the transmitter and the receivers. For example, interference with telephone transmitting signals can result in conversations being heard by third parties without the knowledge of the people at both ends of the transmission path. There is also the possibility that data can be stolen or modified during its transmission by interfering with the radio frequency emissions that carry the data.
Electoral administrators need to be aware of the possibility of a security breach when data such as the results of vote counting, voter data registration or even payments to third parties are transmitted from one place to another. Telephone and facsimile are frequently used by electoral officials. Besides personal communications, electoral authorities can use the telephone for public communication campaigns and can establish toll-free telephone numbers to handle questions from voters and/or for voting.
Mobile telephones provide a flexible alternative to standard telephones, particularly where there is no reliable infrastructure for standard telephones. They may also be a faster and more affordable way to create a voice communications network.
Mobile phones can also facilitate communications among offices that have no access to standard phones services and also between electoral offices and polling sites on Election Day.
Satellite phones and facsimiles can be used to communicate between places where no standard or mobile phone service is available. During voter registration periods and election days, this technology, if available, can solve serious problems of communications with remote areas, especially those without any access to telecommunications infrastructure.
The use of public radio by electoral administrators is probably the best method for promoting voter participation in elections and disseminating information. Radio is relatively inexpensive and has the potential to reach a wide audience, including linguistically and culturally diverse audiences as well as those who have difficulty with printed material for literacy or disability reasons.
Television is also widely used by electoral authorities to promote participation in elections and to disseminate information in many countries its reach is still restricted to a few cities and television ownership can be low. Television is also a practical and powerful medium for reaching audiences who have difficulty with printed material. However, the use of television may be expensive unless television stations consider broadcasting electoral information a public service and decide to offer substantial discounts.
Telecommunications technology also enables computers and/or groups of computers to be connected through networks, including Local Area Networks (LANs) and Wide Area Networks (WANs), making possible the communication and sharing of data. These networks employ specialized software to allow computer around the world to communicate via intranets, extranets and the Internet (World Wide Web) and transmit voice, images and data, including emails.
NetworksMost election management bodies (EMBs) need to share data stored in computers within their own administration and with outside organisations and the public. Computer networks enable two or more computers to communicate and share data and commands.
These networks, described below, may be set up by connecting computers through cables, modems, radio waves or a combination of these.
Local area network
A LAN can connect computers, workstations and other devices such as printers and scanners within a small geographic area such as an office or office building through a common communications line or wireless link. Although there are several ways to set up a LAN, typically, each computer corresponds to a node in a LAN which can execute programs and share the resources of a single computer processor or server. This means that several users can share devices as well as data located away from them. Users can also use the LAN to communicate with each other, by sending email or engaging in chat sessions.
LANs are capable of transmitting data at fast rates and may serve as few as two or three users or as many as thousands of users. However, the geographic distance of a LAN is restricted and there is a limit to the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.
Besides specialized hardware, a LAN requires special operating system software to allow the various devices connected to the LAN to communicate with each other and to ensure the security of the LAN resources and to control the users’ access rights to those resources.
In addition to the benefits derived from being able to share data and programs, LANs allows systems administrators to impose standards on computer hardware, software and users procedures. Users may be required to store data on the central file server rather than their local hard drives, thereby ensuring that the organizations’ data can be centrally managed and backed up and that the data is available to all authorised staff on the LAN.
Wide area networks
Several LANs can be connected to create a wide area network (WAN). WANs can allow geographically dispersed computers to communicate with each other and to share data. For example, an EMB with several different offices, each with its own LAN, can have an EMB-wide WAN, allowing data to be shared across the organisation.
WANs can be used to link computers with access to appropriate telecommunications from anywhere in the world. WANs can be connected by cables or optical fibres, or by microwave links or radio links, using ground-based or satellite transmitters. These links can be privately owned, but they are often part of the public telecommunications infrastructure.
Many WANs are organisation-specific, connecting all of an organisation’s employees to one network regardless of their physical locations. Many users do not see a distinction between their LAN and their WAN.
The Internet
The largest WAN is the Internet, which is a collection of networks linking millions of computer users around the world. It is made up of thousands of smaller commercial, academic, domestic and government networks. It carries various information and services, such as electronic mail, file sharing and the World Wide Web.
Apart from the complex physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is held together by multilateral agreements and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Any communications network, wired or wireless, that can carry two-way digital data can carry Internet traffic.
Millions of people worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Google and Yahoo.
Specific networks may use security, authentication and encryption technologies which limit the access to some or all of their information by the general public while encouraging the use of new ways of home-working, collaboration and information sharing among its authorized users.
The Internet has already proven to be a useful way for EMBs to communicate information to voters in countries where access to the Internet is widely available. Some countries are also starting to use the Internet to allow voters to cast their votes in referendums as well as national, regional and local elections.
Intranets
An intranet is a LAN or even a WAN that is set up like the Internet, but used internally in an organisation to facilitate communication and access to information restricted to its staff and authorised users.
Internet technologies are also used to provide new interfaces to corporate management information systems, such as human resources management systems, procurement and financial systems.
Several EMBs have already set up intranets containing an in-house website that is accessible only to EMB staff for administration and training purposes.
These intranets may not be connected to the Internet itself, but if they are, there is probably firewall software that acts as a gateway through which all access to the organisation’s data is filtered and can be monitored by the organisation's security department. Where external e-mail access is provided, known sources of spam and specific types of e-mail attachment can be blocked by the organisation. It should also be noted that e-mails sent and received this way can be required to be produced by the organisation in the event of legal action against it by a third party.
Extranets
Like an intranet, an extranet is a private computer network that uses Internet technology and the public telecommunication system to securely share part of its business information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses. Access by the general public is not authorized.
This means that an extranet requires security and privacy. These can include firewalls server management, use of digital certificates and message encryption.
The InternetThe Internet is a worldwide network of computers accessible by anyone with the necessary technology. It is used for electoral purposes in a variety of ways. The Internet evolved from a range of computer networks developed in the 1960s and 1970s by the United States Department of Defense, various universities and other institutions. By the 1990s, the Internet had evolved into a global network facilitating access to vast information and enabling electronic communication and commerce.
The Internet consists of an immense network of computers connected by phone lines and, increasingly, by faster and more reliable “broadband” lines, including wireless media. Cabling and transmission options are quickly advancing, offering convenient, faster and affordable Internet access. Computers are connected to these lines via communication adapters, the most common example of these are modems.
Most Internet users employ two main features, the World Wide Web and electronic mail, or email.
The World Wide Web
The World Wide Web consists of a global network of computers, each one offering services or data, called websites. These websites contain interconnected “pages” of data in the form of text, still pictures, moving video and animation, and sound. Consequently, websites can provide information using a variety of delivery techniques, unlike traditional books, videos or audiotapes, which are more static and offer limited search facilities. For this reason, websites and CD-ROM programs that have the same features as websites are described as “multimedia”.
Multimedia programs contain “hyperlinks” that enable the user to navigate through the pages of data. Users can follow items of interest, rather than be locked into a sequential progression of information as in a book or video. Internet hyperlinks facilitate navigation within the same website or from one website to another, providing flexible access to information.
Simple websites are created using a programming language called hypertext mark-up language (HTML). Websites are accessed via computer programs called web browsers (Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, Mozilla’s Firefox, Apple’s Safari and others), which are widely available for little or no cost. Websites that service many hundreds or thousands of users, offering more advanced data and multimedia services are increasingly programmed in languages such as PHP, Java and others, using and following two major architectural paths. Net from Microsoft, and J2EE (Java 2nd Enterprise Edition), which is an open source software.
Most website documents are imaged and viewed by a program called Adobe Acrobat, which uses the “PDF” format. The advantage of the tools listed above (HTML, Java, Adobe Acrobat and web browsers) is that they can be run on most computing devices that are increasingly portable and wireless, expanding access to World Wide Web.
Each page in a website is identified by a uniform resource locator (URL), a unique electronic address that enables its access from web browsers via the Internet. The first words in URLs are called “domain” and they have become a standard part of the corporate identity of many businesses, and government and non-government agencies. Indeed some Internet specific businesses are known only by their domain name. The domain of the ACE Project is www.aceproject.org.
Uses of the Internet
The Internet is both a passive and an active medium. Passive uses focus on communication of information, via still and moving images and sound, where the user simply receives information. Active uses involve two-way communication, where the users can relay information to the providers and vice versa. Active uses include email, on-line commerce and on-line information sharing, such as electronic voting or voter registration.
Many electoral authorities now have websites. In countries where significant numbers of electoral users have access to the Internet, electoral websites have become an integrated part of the service delivery strategy of electoral authorities.
Websites are an excellent way to convey large amounts of information to users. Traditional communication methods such as newspapers, brochures, radio and television are only able to carry limited amounts of electoral information. Electoral authorities can now greatly expand their information delivery capabilities by including references to their websites in their advertising. Websites can be structured to deliver as little or as much information as the user desires.
In addition to delivering information, electoral websites can also be interactive. Users can complete transactions on-line, such as applying for electoral enrolment or voting in elections. Forms can be completed on-line, such as campaign finance disclosure returns, or forms can be downloaded for printing on the user's printer and returned by mail (particularly where a user's hardcopy signature is required).
Election results can be progressively broadcast “live” on websites, as they are counted on and after election night. By the end of the 1990s, some electoral authorities were beginning to replace “physical” tally rooms with “virtual” tally rooms on their websites (for example, the Australian Electoral Commission did this with its 1999 referendum on amending the Australian Constitution).
Election results in spreadsheet or database form can also be made available on websites. Academics, journalists and other researchers can download this data for their own use.
Websites are also useful for publishing election campaign finance data, which in some jurisdictions can cover many hundreds or thousands of pages. Database technology can be used to interrogate this data on-line so as to extract particular items of interest from the vast amount of information provided.
Websites can also be developed for use inside an organisation. Internal networks, called intranets, function in much the same way as the Internet, but access is only provided to authorized users. Intranets used by electoral authorities can include internal resources, such as staff lists, user manuals, training programs, on-line electoral rolls and databases.
Website design
Website design is crucial to the operation of a website. Internet users are well known for their intolerance of websites that are slow to download or hard to understand or navigate. There are many books and Internet sites available that aim to teach good website design. As a relatively new communication medium, website design is an evolving discipline.
Electoral authorities can choose to have their websites set up and maintained by professional web designers, or they can develop and maintain their websites in-house. There are advantages and disadvantages to both choices. External designers are more likely to produce a professional result but may cost more and be slower to respond to update requests than in-house designers. On the other hand, in-house designers may not have the skills of professional designers, but they may cost less and be better able to update the site quickly and accurately. Internet security
Internet security is a crucial issue for electoral authorities providing on-line transactions with clients, particularly on-line voting. Security is also important for email systems where sensitive information may be transmitted. Even simple websites should be protected from unauthorised changes, such as deletion or alteration of web pages or redirection of users to inappropriate off-site URLs.
Internet security is a complex field that is constantly evolving as the Internet develops and Internet “hackers” find new ways of attacking websites. Electoral authorities should consult Internet security professionals for the latest strategies available to them.
There are some general security strategies:
Computer Hardware and SoftwareComputer hardware refers to computing devices and the equipment attached to them. These may include personal computers (PCs), medium range servers, legacy mainframes (large computers that were predominant up to the 1990’s), storage devices, visual presentation devices, Internet/communication equipment, imaging/printing devices, power supply management and personal identification equipment.
Computer hardware evolves very quickly offering increasing capacity and lower acquisition cost. As a general trend, tasks earlier done by mainframes and medium range servers are gradually being done by smaller but powerful PCs.
The use of computer hardware by electoral management bodies (EMBs) follows the practices of other private and public sectors. This means using generic, affordable and ever more powerful PCs and mid-range servers with standardized features. These computers are connected to institutional networks and to the Internet, which improves their affordability, controls maintenance costs and enables the development of powerful applications that assist EMBs in the fulfilment of their tasks and mandates
Personal Data Assistants (PDAs) possess powerful computing and communication capabilities—including mobile telephony—and offer great potential to EMBs. However, PDAs are still evolving and their use by EMBs was still experimental in 2006.
Computer Software refers to the instructions and commands needed to run computer hardware and to perform expected services. There are many classifications of software products, but they usually fall in two main categories: System software and Application software. System software is usually the low level software required to manage computer resources and support the execution of application programs. Application software is software that performs specific functions needed directly by the end users.
System software products include operating systems, network operating systems, data base management software, programming languages software and other software development tools. Application development products include end-user applications, office automation software and various utilities. Some software products may fall into more than one of these categories.
Operating systems control the functioning of computer hardware and enable users to perform expected actions. From a software development perspective, operating systems are very complex. The number of actions that must be flawlessly performed is very high, and the number of conditions under which these actions are performed is also high.
As a result, operating system designers must anticipate an extended variety of operational scenarios/cases as they design the software. Given this complexity, operating systems are generally created, improved and replaced at a relatively slow pace. Windows, UNIX and LINUX are probably the best known operating systems, but there are other highly specific operating systems targeted to smaller markets.
Network operating systems are a subset of operating systems. Their role is to start-up, perform and monitor communications equipment and networks. Most of these systems are proprietary but perform services defined by standards such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), which are a suite of communications protocols used to connect computers on the Internet. Database management software (DBMS) defines structures and tools to enable and control storage, modification, access and retrieval of data stored in a computer data base. Once exclusively proprietary, open source DBMS such as My SQL are increasingly used to create large-scale EMB applications
Programming languages software allows users to give instructions to the computer through a set of predefined scripts that define a program. Examples of programming languages are COBOL, Fortran, Pascal, C, C++, Perl, PHP, Python and Java among many others.
Software development tools include products used to assist in the main phases of development of software solutions namely design, programming and implementation.
Programming aids include Integrated Development Environments (IDE) that orchestrate the simultaneous use of program editors to write, review and edit programs; debuggers to execute and test programs that look for errors or “bugs”; and version control aids that are mandatory in multi-person software development. Almost every step in software development can be helped by special purpose programming aids—error detection, testing, operation monitoring, software usage statistics, etc.
End-user applications can be classified broadly as commercially, institutionally or custom developed. Some end user applications may include a mix of these. Commercially developed applications are bought and expected to be used with minimal or no customization. Application software developed upon request of a given institution usually requires the assistance of a third party. Samples of commercial application software are supply-chain (procurement) management, accounting software, personnel/payroll management and others that perform similar administrative services. Samples of institutionally developed software are applications unique enough that no commercial vendor has a ready made offering. Due largely to their very specific legal frameworks and national requirements, most EMBs have and use this type of software in their mandated activities. Word ProcessingWord processing software is the most widely used office automation application and most, if not all, electoral management bodies (EMBs) use it in their daily work.
By the end of the twentieth century, word processors associated with a personal computer had replaced the use of most typewriters worldwide, except in places deprived of a basic power supply infrastructure.
A word processor enables a user to create and manipulate a document, display it on a screen, store and retrieve it electronically, and print hard copies.
Unlike typewriters, word processors make it possible to correct and change the text of documents as well as exchange texts between different documents without retyping it. Illustrations such as diagrams, graphics, figures, photos and special characters can also be easily incorporated into the text, if necessary. Editing operations such as correcting typing mistakes or moving, deleting, copying and inserting text can be easily done.
These features make word processing a powerful office automation tool because it can decrease the time needed to prepare a new document or to rework an old one.
These documents can also be easily printed if the computer is connected to a printer either directly or through network connections.
Word processing features
All word processing software contains a set of basic features:
Besides these basic features, most word processors are able to check spelling, insert a header/footer, footnotes and create a table of contents, indexes and cross-references.
Most word processors also offer a limited set of tools to create illustrations. These illustrations may be imported from different software and inserted into the document.
Since word processing software enables documents to be saved as computer files, several versions of a single document can be saved and accessed for comparison For documents that need to be shared and edited by several people, there is a tracking function that enables multiples users to insert changes and comments.
The list of features offered by word processing software continues to grow as existing word processors are updated and new software becomes available.
Other considerations
Word processors combined with high-quality printers are able to produce documents that were once only produced by professional typesetters. Today, an increasing number of documents are created in-house by staff members without specific skills.
There are many uses for word processors in electoral administration. Virtually any application that involves the production of written material can benefit from use of a word processor. Most elections publications and correspondences such as books, brochures, forms, letters and newsletters can be produced in-house.
Many books, magazines and websites are available to help choose suitable word processing software. Often, word processing software is bundled with the appropriate computer hardware, either as part of a purchase agreement or as part of government or even the EMB standard for office automation tolls.
Although most software packages come with user manuals and self-paced on-screen tutorials, it is still desirable to provide training for all users. While external trainers are available in most countries, EMBs may be able to use its own skilled staff to provide in-house training. SpreadsheetsSince its introduction at the end of the 1970s, spreadsheet software has become one of the most widely used office automation applications, replacing the manual spreadsheets and bookkeeping ledgers used by accountants for hundred of years. Spreadsheet software is able to present, display and print data in a table-like format and to perform automatic calculations on a set of figures.
Spreadsheet software is used extensively to support electoral administration activities. These include the preparation of financial records and budgets for the overall organization of elections, the planning of voting operations, and the calculation and displaying of elections results, among others. While some of these documents can also be prepared with a word processor, many users prefer the features offered by spreadsheet software.
Spreadsheet programs allow user to enter columns and rows of data. The intersection of a column and a row is called a cell. Data or formulas are entered in the cells and the formulas can perform calculations on data stored in other cells. This means that values provided by the formulas are automatically recalculated whenever there are changes to the data.
Spreadsheet software can also prepare, display and print graphs based on the rows and columns of data, making it useful for data analysis and studying trends.
Spreadsheet features
In addition to performing many types of calculations, spreadsheet software has some features similar to word processors, such as the ability to type, move, copy, delete and paste data contained in cells, groups of cells and rows or columns. Spreadsheets are saved as electronic files and can be displayed, edited and printed, provided the electronic file is not erased. This means that multiple versions of spreadsheet documents can be saved for further access as needed. Data can also be copied, moved and pasted among several spreadsheets.
Most spreadsheet software offers a basic set of features:
Besides these basic features, some spreadsheet programs are able to insert headers and footers and offer additional functions such as sorting, spell checking and tracking changes, among others.
It is also possible to insert pictures and diagrams into a spreadsheet document, although it is more complicated than doing so in a word processing document.
The list of features available in spreadsheet software continues to grow as new versions are introduced in the market.
Many books, magazines and websites are available to help choose suitable spreadsheet software. In many cases, spreadsheet software is provided or bundled with computer hardware, either as part of a purchase agreement or as part of a government or industry standard.
It is desirable to train EMB staff on how to use spreadsheet software. Most countries have external trainers, but EMBs may also be able to provide in-house training using its own skilled staff. Most software packages also come with user manuals and self-paced on-screen tutorials.
Spreadsheet programs are best used when data is being analysed in two dimensions (rows by columns). When many different kinds of variables are being analysed, or where there are many different kinds of relations between different variables, relational databases are more efficient methods of recording and analysing data. DatabasesUsing a database is a more sophisticated way to store, retrieve, display and analyse data than using a spreadsheet. Database software has many potential applications for electoral purposes. For example, databases can be used for election results, party and candidate regulation, inventory control, polling place management, staffing and finance.
Before the inclusion of powerful database programs in office automation software suites in the 1990s and 2000s, database programming tended to be the exclusive domain of professional computer programmers. However, the creation of more user-friendly database programs has given the lay person the ability to develop relatively complex databases without professional information technology qualifications. Election management bodies (EMBs) now have the ability to develop databases in-house.
Data in a database is stored in tables. Each table consists of one or more records and each record may consist of one or more fields. Each field usually relates to a particular type of data. For example, a table named "Staff" may contain a record for each staff member. For each record, there may be fields for first name, last name, address, employment number, position held and so on.
Data stored in tables can be analysed, manipulated, updated, deleted, displayed and printed by applying computer instructions to the data. These instructions are usually applied by use of queries. A query is a set of computer instructions that directs the database program to perform one or more tasks. For example, a query could ask the "Staff" table to find all employees named Smith and display them alphabetically by first name.
Database forms display data on-screen in a more user-friendly and graphic format than spreadsheets and enable users to easily view and manipulate data.
Databases can also produce printed or electronic reports using data contained in its tables or data generated by its queries.
There are five main types of databases:
Flat databases are similar to spreadsheets, with records included in simple lists. The flexibility of flat databases is limited, and they are only suitable for relatively straight forward tasks, such as mail merges.
Hierarchical databases have a treelike structure, with each level of records branching off into a set of smaller categories. This type of database is also relatively limited because sets of records only contain a single link between different levels, restricting flexibility.
Network databases contain multiple links between sets of data, allowing for greater flexibility.
Relational databases go further than network databases in allowing relations between various sets of data to be used to create complex queries. For example, the "Staff" table could be linked to a "Position" table that provides a full description of the position occupied by each staff member, and the "Position" table could be linked to a "Payroll" table that lists the salary of each staff member.
Object-oriented databases have similar attributes to relational databases, however more complex data structures called "objects" are used. Object-oriented databases are the most flexible and adaptable type of database. Most modern databases are relational or object-oriented, or a combination of both.
Database programs supplied with modern office automation software are powerful and allow relatively unskilled EMB staff to easily produce simple databases. Skilled users can develop sophisticated products. For example, an electoral authority could use database programs to:
Other technologiesIn addition to standard computers and electronic voting devices, there is a wide range of specialised electronic/mechanical devices that can be used for electoral purposes. For example:
Counting machines
Various kinds of electronic counting machines are available for counting paper ballots. Many of these were originally designed and built to count bank notes. A variety of counting machines are available to count different sizes of ballots.
More complex counting machines can count ballots in batches (such as batches of 20, 50 or 100) as well as keep a running total of all the ballots counted for a candidate or a ballot option.
Counting machines are generally faster and more accurate than counting by hand.
Letter openers
Many kinds of electronic letter opening machines are available, from small, low volume machines to larger machines capable of handling high volumes of mail.
Electronic letter openers generally work by slicing a small strip of paper from the edge of each envelope. To avoid slicing the contents of the envelopes, it is preferable to ensure that the contents of envelopes are smaller in dimension than the envelopes.
Election management bodies (EMBs) dealing with large quantities of mail (for example from postal ballots) would benefit from the purchase electronic letter openers.
Mail inserting machines
Mail inserting machines allow users to place one or more items of mail into envelopes automatically. More complex machines can be programmed by computer to insert varying mail items into each envelope, depending on the needs of each addressee.
For example, a mail inserting machine used for postal voting could be programmed to insert a personalised letter incorporating an address label, a ballot paper for the voter's specified electorate, and a return envelope. Computer databases are used to specify the various kinds of mail received by each voter.
Mail inserting machines come in many variations, from simple desktop machines to large sophisticated computer-programmed devices. The larger machines may also incorporate laser printers, which can print personalised letters as the mail is being collated. EMBs are unlikely to have the need or the budget for the larger models and are more likely to provide large complex mailing jobs to professional mailing companies. However, for smaller mailings EMBs may find the smaller desktop machines to be useful.
Label printers
Specialized label printers are available, which can print labels directly on to envelopes or on to sticky labels.
Label printers come in a wide range of sizes and complexities, from small desktop printers to large high-volume industrial models. EMBs are unlikely to have the need or the budget for the larger models and are more to use professional mailing companies. However, for printing small runs or single labels, EMBs may find the smaller desktop machines are useful.
Sticky labels are also available in standard paper sizes for use with desktop printers. Standard office automation tools such as word processors and databases can be set up to produce mailing labels using these label sheets.
Overhead projectors
Overhead projectors improved considerably since beginning of the 1990s from the old-fashioned early transparency projectors. While transparency projectors are still available and useful, more advanced projectors can project images directly from a computer onto overhead wide screens.
Electronic computer projectors, combined with presentation software, can deliver very sophisticated presentations. Overhead projectors can project text, data, drawings, photographs, animations and video. Coupled with speakers, sound can be added to presentations.
Overhead projectors are widely used by EMBs for training, presentations and seminars. Projectors can also be used at public election events, such as declarations of candidates and ballot draws or results.
Televisions/videos
Television and video is also used by EMBs for training, presentations and seminars. Many kinds of wide screens are available to display television and video output in a large format suitable for big audiences. This can be used, for example, to train large numbers of polling officials, for example.
When connected to an appropriate computer/Internet system, television screens can be used to facilitate video conferencing. This is particularly useful for conducting meetings or training sessions with geographically dispersed participants.
Electronic whiteboards
Another presentation and training tool is the electronic whiteboard. The advantage of electronic whiteboards over traditional whiteboards is the ability to scroll through several different screens without having to erase previous screens, so that earlier screens can be revisited. It is also easy to print copies of the screens.
Date stampers
Mechanical and electronic date stampers of various complexities can be used to automatically date incoming and outgoing mail and correspondence.
Automatic numbering machines
Mechanical and electronic numbering machines of various complexities can be used to automatically place numbers on items such as forms received or the pages of a file.
Non-electronic innovations
Some uses of technology for election purposes are not electronic or mechanical. Most of these involve the innovative use of manufactured materials. For example:
While many of the behind-the-scenes processes in an election can be automated with electronic devices, the polling process itself is often a non-electronic affair. This is in part because of the enormous cost of providing electronics such as computers or electronic voting devices at large numbers of polling places for an infrequent, one-day-every-few-years event.
Nevertheless, innovative use of non-electronic technology can be employed at polling places.
Many old-fashioned ballot boxes are manufactured from wood or metal. These tend to be heavy, cumbersome and costly to transport and store between elections. Light-weight, disposable/recyclable ballot boxes can be manufactured from cardboard. Light-weight, collapsible, reusable ballot boxes can be manufactured from plastic.
Although cardboard and plastic ballot boxes are not tamper proof—a padlock on a cardboard ballot box would not stop an intruder with a knife, for example—these ballot boxes can be designed in a way to make it impossible for intruders to gain access without leaving evidence. This is usually achieved by sealing the box with uniquely numbered plastic seals. The numbers are recorded by polling officials in front of witnesses, and the seals are checked before the ballot box is opened at the end of the poll to ensure that the seals were not broken or substituted.
Voting screens used for privacy can be manufactured from lightweight cardboard or plastic. Unlike old fashioned wooden screens, cardboard or plastic screens are easier to transport and store and can be disposed of or recycled. It may be more cost-effective to buy new screens for each election rather than pay storage fees between elections.
Cardboard can also be used to make other temporary polling place items, such as tables, signs and queuing fences.
Other innovative materials include dyes and inks used to mark the fingers of voters to ensure that they only vote once in an election. Some inks are invisible to the naked eye, but detectable to ultra-violet light, making them difficult to remove. When invisible inks are used, each voter must have their hands checked under a ultra-violet light to be sure that their hands are not marked. After voting, at least one finger is dipped in the ink. Special inks and dyes that are visible may be used as long as they cannot be removed during polling.
Whether such inks or dyes are appropriate to a particular country's circumstances will depend on the likelihood that voters will attempt to vote more than once, and the cultural acceptance of such an invasive measure. Electoral authorities also need to be satisfied that the use of inks or dyes do not pose a health risk to voters or polling staff. |
