A quota is an allocation rule through which offices, goods, or political functions are distributed in accordance with a certain formula. A quota system is mostly deployed if an unregulated distribution causes unintentional imbalances and inequalities.[1]
In the political realm, quotas introduced to guarantee a fair representation of all members of a society by facilitating their access to elected positions. The core idea of a quota system is to produce a more accurate microcosm of society in the legislature that does not leave any otherwise disadvantaged social group unrepresented. Therefore, quotas are often established for women or for minorities based on regional, ethnic, linguistic, or religious cleavages. Almost all political systems apply some kind of quotas to ensure a minimum representation for minorities, and quotas are increasing in popularity worldwide.
Comparing quotas with other measures to enhance the representation of otherwise under-represented groups (financial incentives, information campaigns, positive action, etc.), quotas are by far the most effective.
Quotas can be of three types: constitutional quota (mandated in the Constitution), electoral law quotas (determined by electoral law), and voluntary party quotas adopted and implemented by individual political parties. The first and the second quota type are legislated quotas, whereas the third type is a non-legislated quota.
Types of Legislated Quotas
Quota requirements can be on three levels:
- Quotas for the pool of potential candidates. This quota type is designed to open up the possibilities for party selection committees or voters in primary elections to select candidates from a more diverse pool of potential candidates than is normally presented to them. “Women only shortlists” is one way of broadening the pool of potential candidates. It is not very common to have legislated quotas at this stage of the process.
- Quotas for candidates/candidate lists. Most legislated quotas fall into this category, where a fixed number or percentage of the places on the candidate lists or total number of candidates is set aside for persons belonging to the group targeted by the quota. For this type of legislated quota to be really effective, it is often combined with placement criteria whereby the disadvantaged groups are promised not only nomination but nomination to “winnable” seats. This is sometimes called a “double quota”. Quotas for candidate lists are mostly in place in proportional representation systems and are often part of the electoral or political party laws. One example is the so called “zipper” system, where every second or third candidate on the list is a woman.
- Quotas for the elected representatives. Quotas for the elected representatives targets the outcome of the elections. This type of quota is often called “reserved seats” because a certain number or percentage of the seats in the national or sub-national legislature are set aside for persons from the under-represented group. Quotas for elected representatives are more common in majoritarian electoral systems and are often enshrined in the constitution, underlining the strong effort of the state to enhance minorities' representation.
Effectiveness and enforcement of quota systems Whether a quota system achieves its goal of fair representation largely depends upon the correct implementation of the legislated quota system, its enforcement mechanism, and sanctions for non-compliance. Whether or not it is supported by the major political parties, and amongst the general public, also has a bearing on their compliance with that particular quota.
Implementation of a quota system is said to be easier in a new political system than in an older one, where seats are occupied by incumbents. Incumbents in general have better chances to be elected than newcomers and are often reluctant to endorse the introduction of quota systems because they fear losing their seats.
Sanction systems are vital for compliance with legislated quotas. In order to be effective, sanctions must be relevant (related to the election or the functioning of the political party), effective (constitute a serious set-back for non-compliers), and reasonable (administrative rather than criminal). It is also important that a specific body (the Electoral Management Body or other) be tasked with enforcing the law and that they have enough human and financial resources to do so.
In general, one can state that where legislated quotas are properly enforced, they can be extremely effective in fostering a more balanced participation in politics. [2]
Notes:
[1] See: Krook, Mona Lena. Candidate gender quotas: A framework for analysis. Washington University in St Louis, USA European Journal of Political Research (2007)
http://www.mlkrook.org/pdf/ejpr_07.pdf.
See also: Krook, Mona Lena. e-International Relations topic articles (June 18, 2010): Gender Quotas and Women’s Political Empowerment. http://www.e-ir.info/2010/06/18/gender-quotas-and-women%E2%80%99s-political-empowerment/ and Coleman, Isobel. Quotas for Women’s Political Participation (Council on Foreign Relations, January 10, 2012). http://blogs.cfr.org/coleman/2012/01/10/quotas-for-womens-political-participation/?cid=oth_partner_site-atlantic%22
[2] Ballington, Julie (2004): Strengthening Internal Party Democracy: Candidate Recruitment from a Gender Perspective”, Paper presented at EISA/NIMD workshop on ‘How to Strengthen Internal Party Democracy?’ at the World Meeting for Democracy: Third Assembly, Durban, South Africa, 2 February 2004.
