Primary elections are
internal party processes that choose a political party’s candidate(s) for the
next general election by holding an internal election. Exactly how this is done
depends on the legal framework, internal party rules, and informal practices.
Primary elections are an
example of a selection process with a high level of participation, meaning that
ordinary members (or in some cases all voters in the electoral district)
control the process.[1]
Arguments for primary
elections
Those who argue for primary
elections tend to say that:
- Primary elections help the
political party select the candidate who is most likely to win a general
election by consulting a considerable number of those who are likely to
vote for the party’s candidates.
- Primary elections start the
democratic process even before the general elections
- Primary elections give the
candidate(s) a clear mandate and legitimacy since the decision has been
taken by party members in general and not only by the top leadership.
- Primary elections give a party,
its candidate(s), and perhaps even its platform significant public
visibility.
- Primary elections empower the
ordinary members and engage them in party strategy and key decisions.
- Primary elections help members overrule
unpopular but entrenched party elites
Arguments against
primary elections
Those who argue against
primary elections claim that:
- Primary elections do not
produce the candidate(s) most likely to win the general election since
only a small fraction of party members (usually hard-liners) tend to vote
in the primary elections. Strategically, it might be better to choose
candidate(s) who can also appeal to other parties’ members or supporters
rather than only to the party’s own core members.
- Primary elections are very
expensive and (unless organized and paid for by the public purse, which
they are in some cases) take funds away from the general election
campaign.
- Primary elections encourage
internal party strife instead of fostering an environment of negotiation,
consultation, and compromise at a time when efforts need to be focused on
defeating external challengers, not internal ones.
- Primary elections take the
decision away from the most experienced, the office holders, and party
leadership. Instead, ordinary party members with little or no experience
of running for or holding public office get to decide.
- Primary elections weaken the
party structures by putting the focus on individual candidates rather than
on the party manifesto or policies.
Legislated and
non-legislated primary elections
Legislated primary
elections refer to cases where the country’s legal framework stipulates that
political parties must choose their candidates by holding internal elections.
In some cases, the laws or regulations (or, in other cases, the Constitution)
merely state that parties must select their candidates democratically, while
other countries have chosen to lay down the details of how primary elections
must be held. Where this is the case, the law sometimes gives the Electoral
Management Body (EMB) the responsibility to organize, monitor, and supervise
the primary elections. Legislated primary elections are often membership based;
otherwise, they can be open to all voters in the constituency.
Laws also differ on
sanctions for non-compliance with the provisions requiring internal party
elections. In some countries, the law does not stipulate any sanctions, while
in others, having held primary elections is a prerequisite for registering a
political party for election or for nominating candidates.
Political parties that hold
primary elections even though it is not required by law are often guided by
their own party constituencies or internal rules for candidate selection. Party
system, electoral system, and party ideology tend to influence this decision,
and even in the cases where legislation exists, it is not always possible to
say if the law has determined the processes or if they simply reflect practice.
Types of primary
elections
There are three main types
of primary elections: the Congress (or Convention/Caucus) election, the
membership election, and the open voter election.
The Congress election is a
common internal party mechanism where the election takes place at a party
meeting, often called a party congress, convention, or caucus. Some political
parties allow all their members to attend and vote at the selection congress,
while others restrict attendance to delegates from the subunits of the party.
The advantages of this system are that the Congress allows the participants to
discuss and reach compromises before a vote is held, the subunits of the party
can be given a clearer voice than in other systems, and, in general, the
Congress system strengthens the role of the party organisation vis-à-vis the
individual candidates. Disadvantages include the often unrepresentative
participation, the risks of manipulation (such as not calling the meeting on
time or closing deals behind closed doors), and the lack of division of power
within the party. Voting in party Congresses is also sometimes done by
acclamation or other methods that do not allow for secrecy of the vote, which
might inhibit the democratic process.
Membership elections are
sometimes called “closed” primary elections given that they are open to all
members of the party but closed to other voters. Membership elections are at
times operated by the Electoral Management Body (EMB) but can also be organized
internally by the party itself. Advantages of this system are that it is more
open and transparent than the Congress elections, empowers the ordinary
members, and involves them more in the business of the party. It limits the
dominance of the party elites but may in that process also take the decision
away from those who are more experienced and might be in a better position to
take a good decision. Another disadvantage might be that the decision is taken
only by those who want to be publicly affiliated with a political party, and
not by supporters or potential supporters who might help the party get a better
indication of which candidates(s) would do well in a general election. In
volatile or polarized political environments with high levels of political
violence, voters may not want to publicly display their affiliation by turning
out to vote in a membership election.
Open voter elections are
primary elections where all registered voters in a constituency, even those who
are members of other parties or of no party, can participate. This is not a
very common method. EMBs tend to organize open voter elections since they
require enrolling all those who could vote in a general election. The advantage
of this system is that political parties do not need a formal and fully updated
membership register, and voters do not have to declare their affiliation
through membership. Open voter elections take one of the main functions away
from the party: that of acting as gate-keepers and recruiters of candidates.
Given that primary elections tend to inspire a lower voter turnout than general
elections, there is also a significant risk that the result does not reflect
the view of the majority of voters who will vote in the general election. Since
supporters of other parties can also take an active part in the primary
election, they may seek to ensure that the candidate with least possibilities
of winning the general election would win the primary – and thereby take
competition away from their preferred party’s candidate.
Factors influencing
primary elections
The electoral system and
election law influence the conduct of primary elections, not only because
requirements to hold primary elections are often included in election laws, but
also because the electoral system in itself influences politics. In
single-member constituencies, the regional and local branches of political
parties would naturally tend to have greater influence, while the central party
organisation would be more influential in systems with multiple-member
districts. This tendency is, however, not clear-cut, and there are many cases
that would contradict this. Electoral laws may also include legislated quotas
that have an impact on the selection of candidates. Quota laws can reserve
seats in the national legislature to ensure gender equality or to enhance the
participation of under-represented groups such as national minorities. They may
also stipulate the number of, for example, women on the parties’ candidate
lists and in some cases even dictate the placement on the list.[2]
The party system is heavily
influenced by the electoral system but also by legal regulations such as the
threshold to win seats in the national legislature, the political geography of
the country, and other contextual issues. The number of political parties
contesting an election, the number of parties likely to win seats in the
legislature, and other issues can determine the need for coalition-building and
other party strategies that can influence the selection process.
The political context and
culture are major factors in deciding on primary elections. As has been mentioned
above, polarization and political violence can for example affect voters’ will
to publicly display their affiliation. The level of trust in a society can set
different needs for transparency and participation, and cleavages in the
society can be reflected in internal party practices.
The political party
culture, lastly, is another of the major factors influencing the process of
candidate selection. If the party is membership based or not, if it is built on
a strong ideology or on the leadership of an individual, and what its
ideological values and traditions are ultimately decide if the party chooses to
voluntarily select its candidates through internal elections.
