The
principle that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”[1]
is at the heart of democratic systems, which have been shaped, historically, by
institutions, social movements and people claiming for human rights. Gender
equality advocates have led and continue to lead a battle in favor of social,
economic, cultural, civil and political rights, under the belief that “women’s
rights are human rights”[2].
The women’s suffrage movement moved forward the human rights agenda with the
struggle for the right of women to vote. In 2015, Saudi Arabia allowed women to
vote for the first time, joining the majority of countries worldwide, where it
is common that national constitutions and legal frameworks enshrine the right
to vote of men and women in terms of equality. Most countries also recognize
women’s right to stand for election, their right to express opinions or their
right to association and peaceful assembly and, therefore, women should
supposedly be free and able to contribute to the political and public life.
However, formal recognition of women’s political rights is far from translating
into an effective participation of women in practice.
Globally,
women only represent 6.6 percent of heads of state, 5.2 percent of heads of
government[3],
24.3 percent of parliamentarians[4],
and the proportion of women elected to local government is unknown.[5]
Despite formal recognition of their political rights, available data shows that
women continue to be excluded from the political and democratic process and
that decision-making continues to be male-dominated.
Some of
the barriers that women currently face when entering the political arena
include, among others, widespread violence, gender blind legal frameworks, lack
of formal and political education, existing practices within political parties
that lead to women’s exclusion, gender biased media coverage of the electoral
process and restricted access to campaign funding. The male dominance of the political
and public space is ultimately the result of deeply entrenched cultural
expectations on the roles that women and men should play in society. In
patriarchal systems, men tend to have predominant roles in political
leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control over property, and
hold power over most decisions in life, while women are excluded from the
decision-making process and relegated to caregiving roles.
Women have
historically suffered and continue to suffer from discrimination and violence
in public and private life. However, in the last century traditional gender
roles started to be questioned by women’s movements that claimed for equal
rights. In the long run, they contributed to positive social change and were
central in the construction of more inclusive and democratic societies. Despite
persisting inequalities and uneven advances, women’s rights found a place in
the political agenda and mentalities all over the world started to experience a
deep shift.
The
adoption of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination
Against Women in 1979 was a historical landmark that allowed the specific
recognition of women’s human rights, including political rights. Another
turning point was the Fourth World Conference on Women, where governments
joined forces to commit to gender equality and to “ensure the full
implementation of the human rights of women and of the girl child […].” The
Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action established the target of gender
balance in decision-making and recognized that “women’s empowerment and their
full participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society,
including participation in the decision-making process and access to power, are
fundamental for the achievement of equality, development and peace.”
Although
women remain underrepresented in decision-making positions, progress has been
made in recent decades as debates emerged over how descriptive or numeric
representation in parliaments and decision-making institutions can translate
into substantive representation in a way that women’s interests and claims are
reflected on legislation and decisions adopted by the elected body. The
critical mass theory provides insight on this matter, arguing that certain
levels of representation are required for women’s voices to be heard. On the
other hand, research has shown that “critical acts” in terms of women’s
substantive representation are possible even without reaching critical mass
representation.[6]
Political
and electoral participation of women is not only restricted to representation
in decision-making institutions, since women can also exercise their
participation rights during elections in different capacities, including as
voters, candidates, elected officials, electoral administrators, observers and
civil society representatives, among others. A comprehensive approach to
women’s political participation needs to take into account all stages of the
electoral cycle, comprising the pre-electoral, the electoral and the post-electoral
periods. All throughout the process, the engagement of various stakeholders,
from EMBs to political parties, the media, or civil society, is key to promote
gender equality and women’s empowerment in the long run.
In the last years, there has been a shift from women’s
issues to the broader notion of gender equality, and the perspective has
evolved from women only to both women and men as beneficiaries of equal rights.
More and more men are slowly but steadily starting to get engaged in the search
for equality, challenging
traditional notions of patriarchal masculinities and promoting a deep positive
transformation of social attitudes and norms. Through the global commitment to
the Sustainable Development Goals, which are underpinned by gender equality and
women’s empowerment as a key to development, men are increasingly championing
for gender equality.
Understandings of gender beyond the binary logic have
also started to emerge, taking into account the rights of all people,
regardless of their sexual orientation and gender identity. LGBTI persons often
suffer from discrimination and violence and their participation rights are
undermined. At least 75 countries have criminalized same-sex relations[7]
and hate crimes against this community are on the rise across the globe. In
spite of these barriers, the effective participation of LGBTI persons remains
an important aspect in the construction of truly democratic systems, based on
the principle that no one should be left behind. The efforts made by numerous EMBs
around the globe to promote the political inclusion of these communities are
based on the conviction that inclusive electoral processes require the
participation of all citizens, as well as the respect of their human rights.
[1] Universal Declaration of
Human Rights (1948), Article 1.
[2] Beijing Declaration
(1995): Fourth World Conference on Women.
[6] There is a vast body of
literature that explores the relationship between descriptive and substantive
representation, and women’s participation, including the work of authors such
as Anne Phillips, Mona Lena Krook and Sarah Childs, among others.
