This glossary
includes terms and words relevant to the field of gender and elections.
A
Autonomy: The concept of autonomy refers to people’s capacity to
make free and informed decisions about their lives, enabling them to be and act
in accordance with their own aspirations and desires, given a historical
context that makes those possible. Women’s autonomy is often conceptualized as
having three dimensions:
1. Physical autonomy (the freedom to make decisions regarding sexuality,
reproduction and the right to live a life free from violence);
2. Economic autonomy (right to work and earn one’s own income, distribution of
paid and unpaid work between women and men); and
3.
Autonomy in decision-making (women’s participation in all branches of government,
signing of CEDAW optional protocol, positioning of national machineries for
advancement of women).[1]
B
Biphobia is an irrational fear, hatred or aversion towards bisexual
people.[2]
D
Decision-making and participation: Women’s
participation in public life, specifically in the realm of public
decision-making, is a key measure of the empowerment of women and a strategy
for bringing about gender equality. The Beijing Platform for Action has two
related strategic objectives: Take measures to ensure women's equal
access to and full participation in power structures and decision-making (G.1)
and Increase women's capacity to participate in decision-making and leadership
(G.2). Women's equal participation in decision-making is not only a demand for
simple justice or democracy but can also be seen as a necessary condition for
women's interests to be taken into account. Without the active participation of
women and the incorporation of women's perspective at all levels of
decision-making, the goals of equality, development and peace cannot be
achieved.
It is important to
recognize that decision-making refers to many different areas of public life,
including but not limited to decision-making positions in Governments,
legislative bodies, and political parties. It is also necessary to seek equal
representation of women and men in decision-making positions in the areas of
art, culture, sports, the media, education, religion and the law, as well as
employer organizations and trade unions, transnational and national
corporations, banks, academic and scientific institutions, and regional and
international organizations, including those in the United Nations system.[3]
Discrimination against girls and women means directly or
indirectly treating girls and women differently from boys and men in a way
which prevents them from enjoying their rights. Discrimination can be direct or
indirect. Direct discrimination against girls and women is generally easier to
recognize as the discrimination is quite obvious. For example, in some
countries, women cannot legally own property; they are forbidden by law to take
certain jobs; or the customs of a community may not permit girls to go for
higher education. Indirect discrimination against girls and women can be
difficult to recognize. It refers to situations that may appear to be unbiased
but result in unequal treatment of girls and women. For example, a job for a
police officer may have minimum height and weight criteria which women may find
difficult to fulfill. As a result, women may be unable to become police
officers.[4]
E
Electoral management body (EMB) are the structures and
individuals responsible for carrying out the many activities involved in the
planning and administering of elections. While a single body may be primarily
responsible for most of these activities, it is also common for electoral
administration tasks to be distributed across multiple bodies. In some
contexts, different line ministries perform electoral administration functions
such as voter registration and media regulation.[5]
Empowerment of women and girls concerns their
gaining power and control over their own lives. It involves awareness-raising,
building self-confidence, expansion of choices, increased access to and control
over resources and actions to transform the structures and institutions which
reinforce and perpetuate gender discrimination and inequality. This implies
that to be empowered they must not only have equal capabilities (such as
education and health) and equal access to resources and opportunities (such as
land and employment), but they must also have the agency to use these rights,
capabilities, resources and opportunities to make strategic choices and
decisions (such as is provided through leadership opportunities and
participation in political institutions).
In addition, UNESCO
explains, “No one can empower another: only the individual can empower herself
or himself to make choices or to speak out. However, institutions including
international cooperation agencies can support processes that can nurture
self-empowerment of individuals or groups”.
Inputs to promote the
empowerment of women should facilitate women’s articulation of their needs and
priorities and a more active role in promoting these interests and needs.
Empowerment of women cannot be achieved in a vacuum; men must be brought along
in the process of change. Empowerment should not be seen as a zero-sum game
where gains for women automatically imply losses for men. Increasing women’s
power in empowerment strategies does not refer to power over, or controlling
forms of power, but rather to alternative forms of power: power to; power with
and power from within which focus on utilizing individual and collective
strengths to work towards common goals without coercion or domination.[6]
G
Gender can be understood as “the roles, behaviors, activities, and
attributes that a given society at a given time considers appropriate for men
and women.” These realities are socially constructed and learned through
socialization. They are context and time specific and are subject to change.[7]
Although traditional forms of gender identity are based on the binary
categorization of men and women, gender realities are diverse and fluid,
constantly evolving, and the binary logic might restrict freedom and possibilities
of human beings, especially for transgender, intersex and gender non-conforming
people.
Gender balance refers to the participation of an approximately
equal number of women and men within an activity or organization. Examples are
representation in committees, decision-making structures or staffing levels
between women and men.[8]
Gender-based violence refers to violence directed against a person
because of his or her gender and expectations of his or her role in a society
or culture.[9]
Gender diversity: Gender diversity is a term that recognizes that
many peoples' preferences and self-expression fall outside commonly understood
gender norms.[10]
Gender equality means equal opportunities, rights and
responsibilities for women and men, girls and boys. Equality does not mean that
women and men are the same but that women’s and men’s opportunities, rights and
responsibilities do not depend on whether they are born female or male. It
implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are
taken into consideration.[11]
Gender expression is the way in which we express our
gender through actions and appearance. Gender expression can be any combination
of masculine, feminine and androgynous. For a lot of people, their gender
expression goes along with the ideas that our societies deem to be appropriate
for their gender. For other people it does not. People whose gender expression
does not fit into society’s norms and expectations, such as men perceived as
‘feminine’ and women perceived as ‘masculine’ often face harsh sanctions,
including physical, sexual and psychological violence and bullying. A person’s
gender expression is not always linked to the person’s biological sex, gender
identity or sexual orientation.[12]
Gender identity reflects a deeply felt and experienced
sense of one’s own gender. Everyone has a gender identity, which is part of
their overall identity. A person’s gender identity is typically aligned with
the sex assigned to them at birth. Transgender (sometimes shortened to “trans”)
is an umbrella term used to describe people with a wide range of identities –
including transsexual people, cross-dressers (sometimes referred to as
“transvestites”), people who identify as third gender, and others whose
appearance and characteristics are seen as gender atypical and whose sense of
their own gender is different to the sex that they were assigned at birth.
Trans women identify as women but were classified as males when they were born.
Trans men identify as men but were classified female when they were born.
Cisgender is a term used to describe people whose sense of their own gender is
aligned with the sex that they were assigned at birth. Gender identity is
distinct from sexual orientation and sex characteristics.[13]
Gender mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications for
women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policy or
programmes, in all areas and at all levels. Gender mainstreaming in EMBs
ensures that women’s and men’s concerns, needs and experiences are taken fully
into account in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of all
activities. Through this process, the EMB seeks to reduce the gaps in
development opportunities between women and men and work towards equality
between them as an integral part of the organization’s strategy, policies and
operations, and the focus of continued efforts to achieve excellence. The term
‘gender integration’ is also used in some contexts.[14]
Gender-sensitive takes into consideration the diversity of
various groups of women and men, their specific activities and challenges.[15]
Gender-specific or gender-targeted interventions seek to
tackle specific areas where women are unrepresented or disadvantaged, including
through the adoption of temporary special measures, and are part of a
comprehensive gender mainstreaming approach.[16]
Glass ceiling: The term “glass ceiling” is a metaphor that has
often been used to describe invisible barriers (“glass”) through which women
can see elite positions, for example in government or the private sector, but
cannot reach them (coming up against the invisible “ceiling”). These barriers
prevent large numbers of women and ethnic minorities from obtaining and
securing the most powerful, prestigious, and highest-paying jobs in the workforce.[17]
H
Homophobia is an irrational fear of, hatred or
aversion towards lesbian, gay or bisexual people.[18]
I
Intersex people are born with physical or biological sex
characteristics, such as sexual anatomy, reproductive organs, hormonal patterns
and/or chromosomal patterns, which do not fit the typical definitions of male
or female. These characteristics may be apparent at birth or emerge later in
life, often at puberty. Intersex people can have any sexual orientation and
gender identity.[19]
L
LGBT/LGBTI: LGBT stands for “lesbian, gay,
bisexual and transgender”; “LGBTI” for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and
intersex”. While these terms have increasing resonance, different cultures use
different terms to describe people who have same-sex relationships or who
exhibit non-binary gender identities (such as hijra, meti, lala, skesana,
motsoalle, mithli, kuchu, kawein, travesty, muxé, fa’afafine, fakaleiti,
hamjensgara and two-spirit).[20]
M
Masculinity: A gender perspective, or way of
analyzing the impact of gender on people's opportunities, social roles and
interactions, allows us to see that there is pressure on men and boys to
perform and conform to specific roles. Thus, the term masculinity refers to the
social meaning of manhood, which is constructed and defined socially,
historically and politically, rather than being biologically driven. There are
many socially constructed definitions for being a man and these can change over
time and from place to place. The term relates to perceived notions and ideals
about how men should or are expected to behave in a given setting.
Masculinities are not just about men; women perform and produce the meaning and
practices of the masculine as well.[21]
Multiple discrimination: Concept used to describe the
complexity of discrimination implicating more than one ground, also known as
“additive,” “accumulative,” “compound,” “intersectional,” “complex bias” or
“multi-dimensional inequalities.” Though the terminology may seem confusing, it
tends to describe two situations: (1) situation where an individual is faced
with more than one form of grounds-based discrimination (i.e. sex plus
disability discrimination, or gender plus sexual orientation). In such
circumstances, all women and all persons with disabilities (both male and
female) are potentially subject to the discrimination. (2) Situation where
discrimination affects only those who are members of more than one group (i.e.
only women with disabilities and not men with disabilities), also known as
intersectional discrimination.
Regarding discrimination against women, CEDAW General Recommendation no. 25
recognizes the following: “Certain groups of women, in addition to suffering
from discrimination directed against them as women, may also suffer from
multiple forms of discrimination based on additional grounds such as race,
ethnic or religious identity, disability, age, class, caste or other factors.
Such discrimination may affect these groups of women primarily, or to a
different degree or in different ways than men. States parties may need to take
specific temporary special measures to eliminate such multiple forms of
discrimination against women and its compounded negative impact on them.”[22]
P
Patriarchy: This term refers to a traditional
form of organizing society which often lies at the root of gender inequality.
According to this kind of social system, men, or what is considered masculine,
is accorded more importance than women, or what is considered feminine.
Traditionally, societies have been organized in such a way that property,
residence, and descent, as well as decision-making regarding most areas of
life, have been the domain of men. This is often based on appeals to biological
reasoning (women are more naturally suited to be caregivers, for example) and
continues to underlie many kinds of gender discrimination.[23]
Q
Quotas: Quota systems have been viewed as one of the most
effective special measures or affirmative actions for increasing women’s
political participation. There are now 77 countries with constitutional,
electoral or political party quotas for women. In countries where women’s
issues had always been relegated to the lowest priority, increases in the
number of women in decision-making positions help move women’s agendas up to a
higher priority level.[24]
S
Sex (biological): The physical and biological
characteristics that distinguish males and females.[25]
Sex-disaggregated data are collected and
tabulated separately for women and men. They allow for the measurement of
differences between women and men on various social and economic dimensions.[26]
Sexual orientation refers to a person’s physical,
romantic and/or emotional attraction towards other people. Everyone has a
sexual orientation, which is part of their identity. Gay men and lesbians are
attracted to individuals of the same sex as themselves. Heterosexual people are
attracted to individuals of a different sex from themselves. Bisexual
(sometimes shortened to “bi”) people may be attracted to individuals of the
same or different sex. Sexual orientation is not related to gender identity and
sex characteristics.[27]
T
Temporary Special Measures (TSMs) are specific targeted
measures taken to accelerate the equal participation of women in the political,
economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field. Given the legal
commitment of states to produce de facto or substantive equality of women with
men in a timely manner, special measures may need to be adopted to enhance
women’s electoral and political participation.[28]
Transgender (sometimes shortened to “trans”) is an
umbrella term used to describe a wide range of identities whose appearance and
characteristics are perceived as gender atypical —including transsexual people,
cross-dressers (sometimes referred to as “transvestites”), and people who
identify as third gender. Transwomen identify as women but were classified as
males when they were born, transmen identify as men but were classified female
when they were born, while other trans people don’t identify with the
gender-binary at all. Some transgender people seek surgery or take hormones to
bring their body into alignment with their gender identity; others do not.[29]
Transphobia is an irrational fear, hatred or
aversion towards transgender people.[30]
V
Violence against women is the manifestation of the historically
unequal power relations between men and women in private and public life. It is
characterized by the use and abuse of power and control over women, and it is a
form of discrimination that seriously violates and impairs the enjoyment by
women and girls of all human rights and fundamental freedoms. The United
Nations Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women, resolution
48/104 of December 20, 1993, defined VAW as “any act of gender-based violence
that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological
harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or
arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or private life.”[31]
W
Women’s political participation refers to women’s
ability to participate equally with men, at all levels, and in all aspects of
political life and decision-making. Women’s participation and access to formal
political power structures vary across countries. There is a steady upward
trend in women’s political participation and representation in developed
countries particularly in Nordic countries. Out of twelve countries where women
representation in parliament is more than 33%, nine of them are ranked in the
high human development category. However, the improvements in medium and low
human development countries are not significant. The structural and functional
constraints faced by women are shaped by social and political relations in a
society. The common pattern of women’s political exclusion stem from (a) social
and political discourses (b) political structures and institutions (c) the
socio-cultural and functional constraints that put limits on women’s individual
and collective agency.[32]
Source: Gender Equality
Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC): Annual report 2011.
Women’s autonomy: From the margins to the mainstream.
[2] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions. See: https://www.unfe.org/definitions/
[3] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Source: Beijing Platform for Action. Chapter IV. G. Women in power and
decision-making.
[4] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Source: UNICEF (2011): “Convention on the Elimination of all forms of
Discrimination against Women: In Brief for Adolescents.”
[5] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): “Inclusive Electoral Processes: A Guide for Electoral Management Bodies
on Promoting Gender Equality and Women’s Participation”.
[6] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Sources:
UNICEF, UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women. “Gender Equality, UN Coherence and You”; Office
of the Special Adviser on Gender Issues and the Advancement of Women (now part
of UN Women) (2001): “Important Concepts Underlying Gender Mainstreaming”;
UNESCO GENIA Toolkit for Promoting Gender Equality in Education.
[7] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
[8] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): op. cit.
[9] UNDP and UN Women
(2017): “Preventing Violence Against Women in Elections: A Programming Guide”.
Lead
author: Julie Ballington. Contributing authors: Gabrielle Bardall and Gabriella
Borovsky.
[10] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Source: Gender Spectrum,
Understanding Gender.
[11] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): op. cit.
[12] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[13] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[14] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): op. cit.
[17] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
[18] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[19] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[20] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[21] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Source:
UNICEF, UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women. “Gender Equality, UN Coherence and You”.
[22] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Sources:
Sheppard, Colleen. 2011. Multiple Discrimination in the World of Work, Working
Paper no. 66. International Labour Organization: Geneva; Convention on the
Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, General
recommendation No. 25 on temporary special measures, article 4, paragraph 1.
[23] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
[24] Ibid.
Source:
United Nations Development Programme and National Democratic Institute for
International Affairs. 2012. Empowering Women for Stronger Political Parties: A
Guidebook to Promote Women’s Political Participation.
[26] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): op. cit.
[27] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[28] UNDP and UN Women
(2016): op. cit.
[29] United Nations for LGBTI
Equality: Definitions.
[31] UNDP and UN Women
(2017): op. cit.
[32] Gender Equality Glossary
of the UN Women’s Training Centre.
Source:
Bari, Farzana (2005) Women’s Political Participation: Issues and Challenges.
Division for the Advancement of Women (now part of UN Women).
