Topic Areas —
Skip to content.
|
Skip to navigation
Subscribe to the ACE Newsletter
Search Site
Advanced Search…
English
Español
Русский
العربية
Français
Swahili
Home
Encyclopaedia
Comparative Data
Electoral Materials
Support and Advice
Regions & Countries
About ACE
Personal tools
Log in
Practitioners' Network
You are here:
Home
→
Encyclopaedia
→
Topic Areas
Practitioner Login
English
Subscribe to ACE Newsletter
Topics
These topic pages provide a quick overview and easy access to all content that can be found on ACE for any give topic of interest - weather encyclopaedia files, electoral materials, comparative data, consolidated replies, case studies, or other.
ELECTORAL FRAMEWORK
Legal Framework
Boundary Delimitation
Electoral Systems
ELECTORAL PARTICIPATION
Gender and Elections
Parties and Candidates
Disability and Elections
Media and Elections
Civic and Voter Education
Direct Democracy
ELECTORAL MANAGEMENT
Electoral Management
Cost of Elections
ELECTORAL INTEGRITY
Electoral Integrity
Campaign Finance
Measuring Electoral Quality
Election Observation
Electoral Assistance
ELECTORAL OPERATIONS
Voter Registration
Voting Operations
Voter Identification
Results Management
Out of Country Voting
Elections and Technology
Elections and Security
Countries
Resources
Encyclopaedia
Electoral Materials
Comparative Data
Election Calendar
Observation Portal
BRIDGE
Extended Learning
Latest Updates
Expert Advice
Ask the Experts
Consolidated Replies
Find An Expert
Access ACE Practitioners' Workspace
About
About ACE
The History of ACE
Contact ACE
ACE Partners
Practitioners' Network
FAQ
Info
Topic Areas
Electoral Systems
Introduction
Context
Overview
Guiding Principles
Criteria for Design
Providing Representation
Making Elections Accessible and Meaningful
Providing Incentives for Conciliation
Facilitating Stable and Efficient Government
Holding the Government Accountable
Holding Individual Representatives Accountable
Encouraging Political Parties
Promoting Legislative Opposition and Oversight
Making the Election Process Workable and Sustainable
Taking into Account 'International Standards'
Criteria for Design - Conclusions
The Process of Change
Who designs?
What are the Mechanisms for Reform and Amendment?
Advice on Debate and Dialogue
Advice on Implementation
Assessing the Impact of Change
Trends in Electoral System Reform
Design Components
The Systems and Their Consequences
Plurality/Majority Systems
First Past The Post (FPTP)
Advantages and disadvantages of FPTP system
Block Vote (BV)
Advantages and disadvantages of BV
Party Block Vote (PBV)
Advantages and disadvantages of PBV
The Alternative Vote (AV)
Advantages and disadvantages of AV
The Two-Round system (TRS)
Advantages and disadvantages of Two-Round System (TRS)
Proportional Representation (PR)
Advantages of PR systems
Disadvantages of PR systems
List PR
Advantages and disadvantages of List PR
The Single Transferable Vote (STV)
Advantages and disadvantages of STV
Proportional representation related issues
District Magnitude
The Threshold
Open, Closed and Free Lists
Apparentement
Independent Candidates and PR systems
Mixed Systems
Mixed Member Proportional (MMP)
Advantages and Disadvantages of MMP
Parallel Systems
Advantages and disadvantages of Parallel systems
Other Electoral Systems
The Single Non-Transferable Vote (SNTV)
Advantages and disadvantages of SNTV
The Limited Vote (LV)
Advantages & Disadvantages of Limited Vote
Borda Count (BC)
Advantages & Disadvantages of BC
Electoral System Tiers and Hybrid Systems
Considerations on Representation
Representation of Women
Representation of Minorities
Communal Representation
The timing of Elections
Remote Voting
Turnout Issues
Additional Issues Relevant to Post-conflict and Transitional Elections
Electoral Systems, Institutional Framework & Governance
Electing a President
Electing a President - First Past The Post
Electing a President - Two-Round Systems
Electing a President - Preferential Voting
Electing a President - Distribution Requirements
Electing an Upper House
Elections for Different Tiers of Governance
Electing Supranational Bodies
Electing Federal/State Assemblies and Autonomous Jurisdictions
Electing Local Authorities
Electoral Systems and Political Parties
Direct Democracy Options
Referendum
Common types of Referendums
Design and Political issues of Referendums
Advantages and disadvantages of the referendum instrument
Citizens' Initiatives
Different types of Citizens' initiative
Design and Political Issues
Advantages and disadvantages of the citizens’ initiative instrument
Recall
Design and Political issues of Recalls
Advantages and disadvantages of the recall instrument
Cost and Administrative Implications of Electoral Systems
Electoral Systems and the Drawing of Electoral Boundaries
Electoral Systems and the Registration of Voters
Electoral Systems and the Design and Production of Ballot Papers
Electoral Systems and Voter Education
Electoral Systems and Number of Polling Days
Electoral Systems and By-elections
Electoral Systems and the Count
Cost and administrative implications - conclusions
Advice for Electoral Systems Designers
A Design Checklist
Annexes
Glossary
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
Argentina
Australia: The Alternative Vote System
Bolivia: Electoral Reform in Latin America
Brazil: Candidate-Centred PR in a Presidential System
Canada: The Canadian Electoral System
British Columbia: Empowered Citizen Participation
Switzerland
Swiss Direct Democracy
Chile: A System Frozen by Elite Interests
China: Village Committee Elections: First Steps on a Long March?
Germany: The Original Mixed Member Proportional System
Ecuador: The Search for Democratic Governance
European Parliament: Elections to a Supranational Body
The Spanish Electoral System - Historical Accident
Finland: Candidate Choice and Party Proportionality
Indonesia: Continuity, Deals and Consensus
Republic of Ireland: The Single Transferable Vote in Action
Israel: Electoral Reform in Israel
India - First Past the Post on a Grand Scale
Jordan - Electoral System Design in the Arab World
Mali: A Two-Round System in Africa
Japan: Adapting to a New Electoral System
Kyrgyzstan: Electoral Manipulation in Central Asia
Sri Lanka: Changes to Accommodate Diversity
Lesotho: Africa’s First MMP Electoral System
Malta: STV With Some Twists
Mexico: Democratization Through Electoral Reform
Namibia - National List PR in Southern Africa
The Netherlands
New Zealand: Learning to Live with Proportional Representation
Papua New Guinea: Electoral Incentives for Inter-Ethnic Accomodation
Poland: Between Fragmentation and Polarisation
Palestine: Political Realities Shape the System
Russia - An Evolving Parallel System
Senegal:A Parallel System in Africa
Thailand: Combating Corruption through Electoral Reform
Ukraine - The Perils of Majoritarianism in a New Democracy
United Kingdom: Electoral System Experimentation in Cradle of FPTP
United States: Ethnic Minorities and Single-Member Districts
United States: Total Recall - the election of Schwarzenegger in California
South Africa: Electoral Systems, Conflict Management and Inclusion
Maldives: Women’s Representation in Political Processes
Unexpected implications of the open lists and the parties’ drive to close them – the experience of two new democracies: Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Electoral Management
Introduction
Overview
Context
Who Organizes Elections?
What is an Electoral Management Body (EMB)?
The Independent Model of Electoral Management
The Governmental Model of Electoral Management
The Mixed Model of Electoral Management
What Can Be Expected of EMBs under the Different Electoral Management Models?
EMBs' Attributes under the Three Broad Models of Electoral Management
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Three Different Electoral Management Models
Permanent and Temporary EMBs
Centralized or Decentralized EMBs
EMBs in Federal Countries
Transitional International EMBs and National EMBs
Representation of the EMB before Cabinet and the Legislature
Some Guiding Principles for All EMBs
Chapter Summary
The Legal Framework: The Context for an EMB’s Role and Powers
International and Regional Treaties and Agreements
The Constitution
Electoral Laws: Acts and Ordinances
EMB Rules, Regulations and Proclamations
Chapter Summary
The Composition, Roles and Functioning of an EMB
EMB Membership
Status of EMB Members
The EMB Chair: A Special Role?
EMB Members: Respected Experts or Watchdogs on Each Other?
Multiparty-based EMBs
Expert-based EMBs
EMBs with Both Expert and Multiparty Membership
Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiparty, Expert and Combined EMBs
Full-time or Part-time EMB Members?
How Many EMB Members?
Term of Office of Members of Permanent EMBs
Recruitment and Appointment of EMB Members
Recruitment Through Open Advertisement
Appointment of EMB members
Qualifications for Appointment
Conditions of Service and Security of Tenure for EMB Members
Oath/pledge-taking or Affirmation
Internal Regulations
EMB Decision-Making Processes
Meetings of EMB Members
Closed or Open EMB Meetings
EMB Member Committees
EMB Members Relationships With The EMB Secretariat
Chapter Summary
The Powers, Functions and Responsibilities of an EMB
EMB Powers and Functions
Extent of Powers, Functions and Responsibilities
Direct Democracy Instruments
Functional Divisions between Electoral Institutions
Voter Registration
Boundary Delimitation
Registration and Funding of Political Parties
Election Campaigns
Voter Education and Information
Validation of Election Results
Electoral Observation
International Activities
Electoral Dispute Resolution
EMB Responsibilities as a Public Organisation
Avoidance of Conflicts of Interest
EMB Responsibilites to Promote Democracy and Equity
Gender Balance
Ethnicity
Broad-based Access
Chapter Summary
Planning and Implementing EMB Activities
The EMB Secretariat and the Public Service
Structuring the Secretariat
Organizational Structure Charts
How to Develop an Organizational Chart
Model Secretariat Structures
Strategic Planning
Operational Planning
The Electoral Calendar
Chapter Summary
The Development of Professional Electoral Management
Staffing of EMBs
Permanent and Temporary Staff
Employment Conditions: EMB-Specific or Public Service Staff
Staff Pensions
Career Patterns of Professional Electoral Officers
Procedures for Recruitment of EMB Staff
Staff Training and Development
Procedures for the Appointment of EMB Secretariat Staff
EMB Organizational and Staff Development for Permanent Staff
Using International Experience
Mentoring
Education and Development Courses for EMB Staff
Operational Training
Training Materials
Factors that May Inhibit EMB Professionalism
Chapter Summary
The Financing of EMBs
What Electoral Costs Need to be Financed?
Who Finances EMBs and How?
Donor Funding
Other Sources of EMB Funding
Budget Formulation Methods for EMBs
Budget Formulation and Approval Process
Availability of Budget Funds
Control of EMB Funding
EMB Procurement Policies and Procedures
EMB Financial Control Measures
Asset Management
Records Management
Principles of EMB Financial Management
Chapter Summary
EMB Stakeholder Relationships
Political Parties and Candidates
EMB Staff
The Executive Branch
The Legislature
Electoral Dispute Resolution Bodies
Judicial Bodies
Election Monitors/Certification Teams and Citizen and International Election Observers
Traditional Media
Social media
The Electorate
Civil Society Organizations
The Donor Community and Electoral Assistance Agencies
Secondary Stakeholders
Maintaining Relationships With Stakeholders
How To Deal With Difficult Stakeholders
Chapter Summary
Electoral Technology
Types and Main Features of Elections Technology
Selected ICT Concepts with Impact on Elections Technology
Election Technology Vendors
Voter Education and Public Information
Training and Expertise
Administrative and Operational Objectives
Issues of Electronic Voter Registration
A Brief Background of Electronic Voting and Vote-counting Systems
Chapter Summary
Assessing EMB Performance
Principles and Best Practices for EMB Accountability
Stakeholder Accountability
Consultation and Communication
Performance Accountability
Internal Performance Accountability
External Performance Accountability
Financial Accountability
Internal Financial Accountability
External Financial Accountability
Accountability for the Use of Technology-based Systems
EMB Assessment Mechanisms
Internal Quality Controls
Auditing EMBs
Performance Audits
Methodology and Scope of a Performance Audit
Performance Audit Outputs
Financial Audits
Programme Evaluation by EMBs
Post-election Reviews
Peer Reviews
External Oversight Issues
Chapter Summary
EMB Sustainability
Why Is EMB Sustainability Important?
Needs Assessment
Electoral Sustainability and Donor Support
Practices Favouring Sustainability
Staffing for Sustainability
Office Systems
Electoral Materials
Structural and Technological Sustainability Implications
Automated Voting and Counting Processes
Chapter Summary
EMB Networks
National Electoral Networks
Regional EMB Networks
Global Electoral Networks
Electoral Support Networks
Chapter Summary
Reforming Electoral Processes
Failing EMBs
The EMB’s Role in Electoral Reforms
The Scope of Electoral Reform
Managing Electoral Change
Risks Associated with Electoral Reform
Chapter Summary
Elections and Youth
The Case of Ghana
The Case of Kenya
The Case of Nigeria
The Case of Namibia
The Case of South Africa
Annexes
Glossary
Bibliography
Contributors
World Survey: EMBs in 217 Countries and Territories
Case Studies
Afghanistan: An Electoral Management Body Struggles to Deal with Executive Interference
Armenia: Electoral Administration in South Caucasus
Bosnia and Herzegovina: The Challenges of an Independent EMB Model
Cambodia: Lack of Confidence in the National Election Committee
Canada: Stability, Independence and Public Trust
Costa Rica: The Supreme Tribunal of Elections
Haiti: a Crisis of Credibility
Kenya: The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission
Liberia: The National Elections Commission
Mexico: A Sophisticated Scheme for Addressing a Serious Distrust Issue
Nigeria: Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)
Norway: Governmental, Decentralized and Trusted
Senegal: Sub-Saharan Multiparty Elections
Seychelles: A New Electoral Commission
South Korea: An Independent and Neutral Electoral Management Body
Sweden: Governmental in Form, Independent in Practice: A Decentralized Election Management System
Timor-Leste: Election Administration
Tonga: A New Commission in a Small Island State
The United Kingdom: Electoral Governance in Transition?
The United States Administration of Elections: Decentralized, Pre-modern and Contented
Tunisia: The Independent High Authority for the Elections
Fiji: A New System Under Pressure
Republic of Georgia: A Commission in Tranistion
India: The Embodiment of EMB Independence
Iraq: International Institution Design
Japan: Mixed Model Electoral Management for a Mixed Parallel Electoral System
Lesotho: Building a Reputation
Spain: Mixed Model Electoral Management Becomes Well Established
Mozambique: A Need for Depoliticization
Ukraine: The Long Road to Politically Independent Election Administration
Uruguay: The Electoral Court - A Fourth Branch of Government?
Vanuatu: Limitations to the Independence of the EMB
Yemen: An Emerging Independent EMB
Zimbabwe: A New Era in Election Management
Using Performance Benchmark Standards to Improve Electoral Management
Boundary Delimitation
Encyclopaedia Content
Overview
Context
Guiding Principles
Delimiting Electoral Districts
Electoral Systems that Delimit Electoral Districts
Electoral District Alternatives
District Magnitude
Single-Member and Multimember Districts
Alignment of Districts with Administrative Boundaries
Country Survey of Delimitation Practices
Structure and Rules for Delimiting Electoral Districts
Designation of a Boundary Authority
Composition of the Boundary Authority
Partisan Considerations in Choosing a Boundary Authority
Degrees of Boundary Authority Centralisation
Authority for Choosing the Final Districting Plan
Frequency of Electoral District Delimitation
Length of Time Permitted for the Delimitation Process
Public Access to the Delimitation Process
Establishment of Criteria for Delimiting Districts
Equal Population in Redistricting
Geographic Criteria for Delimiting Electoral Districts
Special Provisions for Minority Groups When Delimiting Electoral Districts
Communities of Interest: Delimiting Boundaries
Role of the Courts in Electoral District Delimitation
Tasks Involved in Drawing Electoral District Boundaries
Information Required to Draw Electoral Districts
Use of Population Data in the Delimitation Process
Use of Political Data in the Delimitation Process
Use of Maps in the Delimitation Process
Steps in the Electoral District Delimitation Process
Allocating Seats
Drawing District Boundaries
Preparing a Districting Database
Drawing Electoral District Boundaries
Describing and Evaluating an Electoral District Plan
Delimitation Technology
Use of Computers and Software for Delimitation
Low-Technology Delimitation
GIS (Geographical Information Systems)
Use of Consultants
Supporting the Redistricting Process
Special Considerations for Delimiting Voting Areas
Annexes
Glossary
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
Afghanistan: Delimiting Districts for Transitional Elections in a Post-Conflict Society
Australia: Using Projections to Equalize Electoral District Populations
Canada: Representation in Parliament
Democratic Republic of Congo: Determining How Districts Might be Delimited in a Post-Conflict Society
Germany: Delimiting Districts in a Mixed Member Proportional Electoral System
Fiji: Delimiting Communal Seats to Guarantee Ethnic Representation
The United Kingdom: Redistribution Process
Kosovo: Delimiting Electoral Districts for a Proportional Representation System
Malaysia: Malapportioned Districts and Over-Representation of Rural Communities
New Zealand: Drawing Electoral Districts to Guarantee Minority Representation[1]
Singapore: Drawing Districts to Ensure Super-Majorities in the Parliament
The United States of America: Reapportionment and Redistricting
Yemen: Assessing the Feasibility of Computer-Assisted Delimitation
Federal Redistribution in Australia
Voting Operations
Introduction
Overview
Context
Participation History
Human Rights
International Intervention
Legislative and Regulatory Framework
The Electoral Management Structure and the Delivery of Voting Operations
Use of Technology in Voting Operations
Sustainability Considerations
Cost Considerations
Budgeting and Planning Cycle
Budgeting Systems
Budgeting and Historical Data
Inclusiveness and Comparability of Budgets
Funds Assurance and Timing of Electoral Funds
Budget Line Item Considerations
Staffing and Training Costs
Equipment, Materials and Premises Costs
Communications and Postage Costs
Transport and Freight Costs
Other Costs
Guiding Principles
Voting Preparations
Implementing the Law
Voting Procedures
Voting in Person on Voting day
Absentee Voting
Qualifications and Eligibility Procedures
Locations For Absentee Voting
Absentee Ballot Forms
Voting in a Foreign Country
Early Voting
Early Voting Procedures
Proxy Voting
Provisional or Tendered Votes
Other Special Voting Arrangements
Assisted Voters at Voting Stations
Assisted Voters at Other Locations
Voting in Remote Areas
Security and Emergency Forces
Refugees and Displaced Persons
Suppressed Voter Addresses
Planning
Needs Assessments
Operational Work Plan
Calendars and Time Lines
Assignment of Responsibilities
Checklists for Planning
Infrastructure
Transportation Infrastructure
Communications
Materials Production
Voter Information
General Media
Information Direct to Voters
Usage of Telephone Information Services
Information at Voting Locations
Voter Information Requirements
Information on Eligibility and Methods
Information on Voting Location and Hours
Information on Voting Station Procedures
Information on How to Ensure a Vote is Valid
Information on the Integrity of the Voting Process
Expenditure Planning
Materials and Equipment
Use of Standard Reference Material
Manuals
Administration Manuals
Voting Station Officials Manuals
Trainers Manuals
Party/Candidate Manuals
Observer Manuals
Security Force Manuals
Checklists and Cue Cards
Production of Ballot Papers
Ballot Paper Design
Printing of Ballots
Printed Ballot Integrity Controls
Voting Day Equipment and Maintenance Considerations
Ballot Boxes and Seals
Voting Compartments
Temporary Structures
Furniture
Amenities
Sensitive vs. Non-Sensitive Material
Voting Materials
Voters' Lists
Election Forms
General Supplies
Materials Quality Control
Requisition and Inventory Preparation
Storage Prior to Voting
Packaging Materials and Equipment for Delivery
Storage After Voting Day
Logistics
Transportation
Delivering Voting Site Resources
Arrangements with Suppliers
Security Force Transportation
Transportation Security
Communications Systems
Voice Communications
Recruitment and Training of Voting Station Staff
Voter Operation Staffing Profile
Voter Service Standards
Level, Categories & Duties of Electoral Staff
Voting Station Management
Entrance and Queue Control
Information and Language Assistance
Controlling the Voting Process
Other Voting Operations Staff
Recruitment
Recruitment Standards
Representativeness and independence of staff
Disqualifications from Employment
Educational Qualifications
Recruitment Action Plan
Recruitment Methodology
Transparency in Recruitment
The Nature of Appointment Contracts
Contingency Staff
Staff Appointment Documentation
Codes of Conduct for Voting Operations Staff
Training of Voting Operations Staff
Organisation of Training
Defining Training Objectives
Training Materials, Equipment, and Sites
Training Plan
Training of Trainers
Training Methodology
Training Delivery Responsibilities
Training Session Content
Training Delivery Style
Training Environment
Timing of Training
Knowledge Assessment
Training Reference Materials
Security Force Training
Evaluation of Recruitment and Training
Training for Parties and Candidates
Training for Observers
International Observer Training
Voting Sites
Demographic Analysis
Locations of Voting Sites
Voting Site Arrangements
Voting Site Standards
Voting Site Facilities
Voting Station Layout Standards
Potential Voting Station Layouts
Reserving Voting Sites
Voting Site Needs Assessments
Voting Station Readiness
Voting Location Maps
Voting Site Security
Security Responsibilities and Planning
Security Risk Assessments
Standards and Site Assessments
Operations and Security Centres
Voting Site Security Arrangements
Role and Powers of Voting Station Staff and Security Forces
Use of Communication Networks
Rapid Reaction and Reserve Forces
Information Security
Voting
Ensuring Readiness
Distribution and Receipt of Voting Materials
Transportation of Voting Station Officials
Multi-Day Voting
Contingency Plans
Voting Hours Operations
Preparations for Commencement of Voting
Site Checks
Staffing Checks
Materials Checks
Equipment Checks
Voter Service
Crowd and Queue Control
Determination of Eligibility to Vote
Issue and Casting of Ballots
Informing and Assisting Voters
Assistance to Voters
Voters not Found on Voters' Lists
Voting Station Staff Management
Monitoring Voting Station Staff Performance
Staff Welfare on Voting Day
Integrity Controls
Security in Voting Stations
Crisis Management
Role of Party/Candidate Representatives
Rights and Conduct Within Voting Stations
Representatives at Mobile Voting Stations
Close of Voting
Collection of Ballots
Reconciliation of Ballots or Envelopes Received
Reconciliation of Ballots or Envelopes Issued
Verification and Packing of Materials
Preparation for Ballot Count
Role of Party/Candidate Representatives
Closing Arrangements for Special Voting
Close of Voting for Provisional Votes
Close of Voting for Early Voting
Close of Voting for Absentee Voting
Close of Voting for Mail Voting
Close of Voting for Votes Cast Outside the Country
Close of Voting for Mobile Voting Stations
Voting Station Managers' Reports
Management of Challenges and Complaints
Challenges to Voters
Challenges to Validity of Ballots
Challenges to Party/Candidate Representatives' Actions
Challenges to Voting Operations Management
Voter Follow-Up
Compulsory Voting System
Voter Fraud
Annexes
Contributors
Case Studies
Elections in Ethiopia
Elections in Palestine
Out of Country Voting
Introduction
Context
Overview
Guiding Principles
Comparative Review
Comparative Review of Out of Country Voting
Types of Election to Which External Voting Applies
Persons Eligible to Out of Country Voting
Voting Procedures in Use for External Voting
Political Representation for External Voters
External Voting and Participation
Legal Framework
Legal Framework of Out of Country Voting
The Concept and Provisions of External Voting: Basic Features and Institutional Choices
Three Structural Problems of External Voting
Conclusions of the Legal Framework of Out of Country Voting
Entitlement to Out of Country Voting
Entitlement to Out of Country Voting
Conditions for Entitlement to Vote
Qualification to Stand as a Candidate in Elections
Registration of External Electors
Examples of Qualifications for External Voting
Conclusions of the Entitlement to Out of Country Voting
The Implementation of External Voting
The Implementation of External Voting
Planning of External Voting
Aspects of the Implementation of External Voting
Conclusions of the Implementation of External Voting
Host Country Issues
Host Country Issues
Negotiating with Host Countries
The Roles and Responsibilities of Host Countries
Host Country Agreements
Costs
Conclusions of Host Country Issues
The Political Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons: Enfranchisement and Participation
The Political Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons: Enfranchisement and Participation
Obstacles to Refugee Enfranchisement
The Regulatory Framework
Special Political and Logistical Requirements
Conclusions of the Political Rights of Refugees and Displaced Persons
The Political Rights of Migrant Workers and External Voting
The Political Rights of Migrant Workers and External Voting
Awareness of Migrant Workers’ Political Rights
The Challenges of Designing an External Voting Mechanism that Includes Migrant Workers
Alternatives for Design and Implementation
Conclusions of the Political Rights of Migrant Workers and External Voting
Observation of External Voting
Observation of External Voting
Types of Observation and Their Purpose
The Assessment Prior to Observation of External Voting
When Should External Voting be Observed?
External Voting: Controlled and Uncontrolled Environments
Data Collection
The Observation Process: Possibilities and Limitations
Conclusions of Observation of External Voting
”E-voting” and External Voting
”E-voting” and External Voting
Remote E-voting and External Voting
Arguments in Favour of and Against Remote E-voting for External Electors
Some Security Challenges for Remote E-voting and Possible Solutions
Other support through new information and communication technologies
Conclusions of e-voting and external voting
The Cost of External Voting: Some Examples
Annexes
Glossary
Contributors
References and Further Reading
Global Survey of External Voting in 214 Countries and Territories
Case Studies
Botswana: Disappointing Results of External Voting
Afghanistan’s 2004 Presidential Election: External Voting for a Large Displaced Population
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Post-war Trends in External Voting
Brazil: Compulsory Voting and Renewed Interest Among External Voters
Cape Verde: A Large Diaspora and Low Turnout by External Voters
Honduras: A Decision Based on Political Calculations
Colombia: Representation of Emigrants in the Congress
The Dominican Republic: Political Agreement in Response to Demands for the Right to Out of Country Voting
The Cook Islands: Seat for Overseas Voters Abolished
Estonia: More Options for External Voting
Mexico: Safeguarding the Integrity of the Electoral Process
The Marshall Islands: A High Proportion of External Voters
Indonesia: A Long-established System for External Voting at Diplomatic Missions
Mozambique: A System that is too Subjective?
Portugal: Extended Voting Rights and Decreasing Participation
Iraq: A Large Diaspora and Security Concerns
Senegal: A Significant External Electorate
The Philippines: The First Experience of External Voting
Switzerland: External Voting in a Federal State with Direct Democracy
Zimbabwe: Highly Restrictive Provisions
ACE Topic Areas
Legal Framework
Introduction
Context
Overview
Guiding Principles
Introduction
Structural Underpinnings of the Legal Framework
Different Legal Traditions
Political and Governmental Systems
Territorial Organization of the State
Democratic Political Government
Political Parties System
Legal Instruments
International Treaties
Constitutions
Electoral Laws
Administrative Regulations
Judicial Precedent
Electoral Authorities Executive Agreements
Codes of Conduct
Creation and Amendment Process
Creation Strategies
Amendment Process
Essential Elements
Electoral System
Electoral Management
Electoral Boundary Redistribution
Voter Registration
Requirements
Registration Procedures
Political Parties and Candidates
Political Parties and Other Organizations
Political Parties
Alliances of Political Parties
Other Political Organizations
Candidates
Qualifications
Independent Candidates
Registration Process
Voting Operations
Ballots
Polling Stations
Voting Procedures
Vote Counting
National and International Observers
Voter and Civic Education
Media and Elections
Elections and Technology
Electoral Campaign
Political Financing
Election Integrity
Electoral Dispute Resolution
Different Systems
Legislative Model
Judicial Court Model
Specialized Electoral Tribunal Model
Autonomous
Part of the Judiciary
Constitutional Courts Model
Alternative Dispute Resolution
Appeals and Other Challenges
Classes
Reviewable Resolutions
Who can file electoral appeals
Terms
Evidence
Election Nullification
Electoral Reform
The EMB’s Role in Electoral Reforms
The Scope of Electoral Reform
Managing Electoral Change
Risks Associated with Electoral Reform
Chapter Summary
Annexes
Bibliography
Contributors
End Notes
Case Studies
Canada: Considering the Right to have a Vote Counted and Procedural Non-compliance at Voting Stations.
Egypt: Parliamentary Elections and the Judiciary
Fiji and the Solomon Islands: Political and Electoral Reforms
Ghana: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Jordan: A Changing Electoral Framework
Kenya: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Malawi: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Namibia: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Nigeria: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Seychelles: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Sierra Leone: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
South Africa: The Role of the EMB in Electoral Reform
Zambia: Insights into EMB role and approaches of engagement
Media and Elections
Introduction
Overview
Media as Watchdog
Media as a Campaign Platform
Media as Open Forum for Debate and Discussion/ Public Voice
Media as Public Educator
Gender, Media and Elections
Additional Resources
Guiding Principles
Context
The Media Landscape Today
Media Literacy
Radio
Television
Print
New Media
Media Ownership and Elections
Public Media: State, Government and Public Service Broadcasting
Private and Corporate Media
Community Media
Party and Politician-owned Media
Media Safety
Relative Importance of Different Media
Existing Media Regulatory Frameworks
Legal Framework for Media and Elections
International Law on Media and Elections
Media and Democracy
Obligations of Pluralism
Freedom of Political Debate
Right of Access to Government Media
Publishing Opposition Views
Right of Reply to Media Reports during Elections
Limits to Liability of Media During Elections
Restrictions on Political Speech
Criticism of Politicians and Government
Right to an Effective Remedy
Protecting the Safety of the Media
National Law or Regulations on Media During Elections
Who Should be Involved in the Drafting Process?
A Specified Campaign Period?
Different Obligations of Public and Private Media
Provisions that Affect Both Private and Public Media
Implementation Mechanism for Media and Election Regulations
Implementation Mechanism: Existing Media Regulatory Body
Implementation Mechanism: Media Self-Regulation
Implementation Mechanism: Electoral Commission
Implementation Mechanism: Elections Media Commission
Implementation Mechanism: Judiciary
Complaints Procedure on Media Coverage
News Blackouts
Regulating Coverage of Opinion Polls
Policies on Hate Speech and Defamation
International and Comparative Law on Hate Speech
Media Liability for Reports of Unlawful Statements
Hate Speech - Operations of the Regulator
Right of Reply to Criticism or Adverse Statements
Journalists' Right of Access to Election Events
Accreditation of Journalists
Accreditation of Foreign Media
Provisions for Public Media
Allocation of Time to Candidates and Parties
Equal or Equitable Direct Access Coverage?
Criteria for Allocation of Direct Access Time
Timing and Length of Direct Access Slots
Who Pays for Direct Access Broadcasts?
Who Produces Direct Access Broadcasts?
Direct Access in Referenda
Paid Political Advertising
Examples of Countries that Allow Paid Political Advertising
A Mixed System of Advertising and Free Access
Regulation of Content of Direct Access Material?
Political Advertising and Campaign Spending Limits
Government's Duty to Inform - Voter Information
Third Party Campaigning
Balanced News Coverage
Provisions for the Private Media
The Gap between Law and Practice
EMB Media Relations
Establishing an EMB Media Relations Department
Establishing an EMB Media Relations Department’s Mandate and Framework
Developing a Media Relations Strategy
Analysing Your Strenghts and Weaknesses
Consultations with Media and Relevant Stakeholders
Charting the Electoral Cycle/Phases
Pre-Election Period
Pre-Campaign Period
Campaign Period
Voting Day
The Count and Results
Post-Election Period
Audience Analysis
Mapping the Media
Tools and Techniques of Media Relations
Briefing Packs
Prepared Audio, Video, and Print Material
Press Releases and Press Statements
Websites and New Media
Press Conferences
Media Briefings
Media Tours
Media Centre
Interviews
Message Development
Media Monitoring
Media Monitoring by Electoral Management Bodies
Media Monitoring by International Election Observation Missions
Media Monitoring by Domestic Observer Groups and Civil Society Organisations
Media Monitoring by Media Peak Bodies or Individual Media Outlets
Media Monitoring Methodology
Media Monitoring and Media Analysis
Quantitative Media Monitoring Methods
Qualitative Media Monitoring Methods
Monitoring New Media
Reporting Media Monitoring Findings
Examples of Elections Media Monitoring Reports and Media Monitoring Guidelines
Media Development
Media Professionalism
Codes of Conduct for Media in Elections
Legal Issues in Election Reporting
Accuracy in Election Reporting
Impartiality in Election Reporting
Responsibility in Election Reporting
Elections Reporting Training
Rights, Advocacy and Legal Support
Business Development
Media Infrastructure
Covering an Election
Voter Registration Period
Candidate Nomination and Pre-campaign Period
Campaign Period
Party and Candidate Campaign Media Strategies
Reporting on Political Events
Reporting on Campaign Financing and Spending
Bottom-up Reporting
Reporting Opinion Polls
Reporting Hate Speech
Voting Day(s)
Counting and Results Period
Reporting on Exit Polls
Reporting on Quick Counts
Post-Election Period
Annexes
Contributors
Case Studies
Afghanistan: Media and Electoral Processes
Bosnia: The Operations of the Regulator on Hate Speech
Canada: Paid Political Advertising
Canada: Canada prohibits bloggers from reporting results
Egypt: New Media and Election Transparency
Gambia: The Independent Electoral Commission of The Gambia develops a communications plan
Georgia: Media Monitoring Recommendations During Elections
Italy: An Existing Regulatory Body
Malawi 2014 Tripartite Elections: Should media outlets announce unofficial results?
Nigeria: Media Ownership and its Impact on Elections
South Africa: Gender and Elections
Russia: Complaints Procedure (1993)
United Kingdom: The Operations of the Regulator on Hate Speech
Zimbabwe: An Example Of Unbalanced Coverage
United States: bringing the bloggers to heel?
US Presidential Election 2016:‘Fake News’, Foreign Influence and Social Media
Internet restriction during elections
Parties and Candidates
Introduction
Overview
Guiding Principles
Context
External Regulations of Parties and Candidates
Laws and Regulation that concern Political Parties
Roles and Definition of Political Parties
Registration of Political Parties as Organisations
Financial Regulations
Direct and Indirect Public Funding
Use of Direct Public Funding
Timing of Direct Public Funding
Allocation of Direct Public Funds
Indirect Public Funding of Parties and Candidates
Advantages and Disadvantages of Public Funds to Political Parties and Candidates
Reporting and Public Disclosure of Party Finance
Prohibited Sources of Funds
Ceilings on Elections Expenditure
Limits on Donations
Legislated Quotas
Legislated Quotas for Women's Representation
Advantages and Disadvantages of Legislated Quotas for Women's Representation
Legislated Quotas for National Minorities
Advantages and Disadvantages of Legislated Quotas for Minority Representation
Internal Functioning of Political Parties
Legal Regulations Regarding Internal Functioning
Internal Elections for Leadership Positions
Other Legal Regulations Regarding Internal Functioning
Internal Voluntary Party Regulations
Candidate Selection within Political Parties
Primary Elections
Voluntary Party Candidate Quotas
Voluntary Party Candidate Quotas for Women
Voluntary Party Candidate Quotas for other Disadvantaged Groups
Conditions under which voluntary party quotas are most likely applied
Advantages and Disadvantages of Voluntary Party Candidate Quotas for Women's Representation
Factors influencing the implementation of voluntary party candidate quotas
Party Structure
Party Media
The Role of Members
Parties and Candidates in the Electoral Process
Political Party Codes of Conduct
Content of Political Party Codes of Conduct
Registration for Election and Nomination of Candidates
Registration Requirements of Candidates for Election
Monetary Deposits for Ballot Access
Criteria to stand as a candidate
De-Registration of Parties and Candidates
The Effect of Electoral System on Parties and Candidates
District Magnitude and Political Parties
Party Magnitude and Candidate Selection
The Effect of Electoral System on Party System
The Effect of Electoral System on Candidates
By-Elections
Relationship between Parties and Candidates and the Electoral Management Body
Parties and Candidates as Stakeholders
Types of Involvement
Political Parties Liaison Committee
Media in Election Campaigns
Campaigning
Coalitions and Elections Alliances
Resignation, Removal, Death of a Candidate Before an Election
Parties as Election Monitors
Parties and Candidates in Legislatures
Formation of Government
Party Group/Caucus
Floor-Crossing
Electoral Cycle Approach: Political Parties & Candidates
Annexes
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
India: Reservation of Number of Seats for Minorities
Cambodia: Code of Conduct
Russia: Electoral Campaign of Variable Duration
United States: Study on Primary Elections
South Africa: Case Study on Floor-Crossing
Primary Elections in Latin America
Civic and Voter Education
Introduction
Overview
Guiding Principles
Context
Basic Ideas and Definitions of Voter Information, Voter Education and Civic Education
Meaning of democracy
Basic Voter Information
Basic Voter Education
Common Features of Voter Information and Education
Explaining electoral systems
The Election calendar and timetable
Political Parties in Voter Education
Election officials in voter education
Election Sites
Election management authority offices
Voter Education at Voting Sites
Voter Education at Counting stations
Role of Voter Education in Registration Process
Basic Civic Education
Direct Democracy
Civic Education
Introduction to civic education
Authoritarian Regimes and Fragile States
Post war reconstruction
Civic Education in Emerging Democracies
Civic Education in Established Democracies
Civic Education During Emergencies
Relationship Between General and Civic Education
Institutionalising Civic Education
National Curricula for Civic Education
Responsibility of Civic Education Among National Institutions
Popular education
Social Processes
The Educational Mandate
International Principles of the Educational Mandate
Legislative Framework
National Legislation and Local Ordinances Impact Voter Education Initiatives
Election legislation
Constructing a Mandate
Election Stakeholders
Election Management Authority and Other Statutory Bodies as Stakeholders in the Voter Education Mandate
Organised Civil Society as Stakeholders in the Voter Education Mandate
Contestants as Stakeholders in the Voter Education Mandate
Competition and Cooperation in Educating Voters
Mechanisms for Partnerships in Voter Education
Context Assessment
Voter Background
Consideration of Demographics in Shaping Voter Education
Cultural and Religious Norms
Gender
Considerations of Literacy and Schooling for Voter Education
Using Existing Resources for Educational Programmes
Country Infrastructure
Country Infrastructure
Educational System
Venue for Education Events
Communication Mechanisms
Importance of Mass Media in Education Programmes
Political Parties in Voter Education
Time and Money
Existing Social Organisations
Statutory Authorities
The Private Sector
International Support
International Support
South-South Cooperation
Educational Needs
Target Groups, Audiences, and Constituencies
The General Electorate
High Impact Groups
Marginalized Voters and Groups with Special Needs
Other Considerations
Political, Constitutional, and Legislative Considerations
Logistical Considerations
Educator Values
Assessing Voter Needs
Surveys
Survey Design
Framing Questions to Maximize Survey Data
Survey Preparation
Sampling
Selecting Participants
Getting Into the Field
Using Existing Data
Interlocutors and Intermediaries
Strategy Development
Educational Theory
Adult Learning
Ideological Considerations
Cultural and Social Considerations
Legitimacy and Credibility
Educating Leaders and Citizens
Language
Public Education Principles
Organisation
Planning and Alignment
Existing Institutions
Election Specific Organisation
Codes of Conduct
Access to Information
Non-Partisanship
Liaison with Election Authorities
Methodology Selection
Message Development
Special Cases
Approaching Military and Police Forces
Education of Prisoners
Engaging Apathetic and Disempowered Groups
Discrimination and Exclusion
Reaching Nomads and Isolated Groups
Communicating with Exiles, Refugees, and Internally Displaced Persons
Ensuring the Participation of Shut-Ins and the Physical Challenged
First Time voters
Potential Programme Elements
The Media
State-owned Media
National Impact Media
Community Impact Media
Use of Radio Advertising
Alternative Methods of Communicating Voter Education
Printed Materials
Legal Considerations
How Copyright Affects Voter Education Programmes
Indexing and Dating
Environmental Considerations of Voter Education
Traditional Print Items
Specialty Print Items
Comics and Pictorials
Posters and Banners
Bookmarks
Beverage Coasters
Stickers
Voter Education Clothing
Promoting Voter and Civic Education with Product Packaging
Calendars
Arts and Culture
Formal Performance Art
Street Theatre
Special Events
Art and Handicrafts
Face To Face Interaction
Group Learning
Simulations
Door To Door Canvassing
Each One Teach One
Other Strategies for Education Programmes
Voter Education Outreach via Information Centres and Hotlines
Direct Mail
Telephone Canvassing
Street and Neighbourhood Campaigns
Commercial Advertising
Distance Learning Techniques
Digital Materials
Digital and Recorded Materials
Web-based Voter Education Materials
Implementation
Preparation
Voter Education Calendar
Budgeting and Financing for Voter Education Programmes
Programme Design
Design Cycle
Team Development
Educational Objectives
Obtaining and Maintaining Commitment to the Plan
Production Considerations
Projected Materials
White Boards and Black Boards
Preparing Instructional Materials
Procurement
Commissioning Materials
Managing Contracts
Assessing and Adapting Existing Materials
Goods and Services
Storage and Distribution
Election Supplier Directory
Staffing for Civic and Voter Education
Job Definition and Profiling
Recruitment
Managing Staff and Volunteers
Training and Orientation
Administration and Management
Leadership
Co-ordination and Control
Quality Assessment
Staff and Volunteer Morale
Relationships to Other Stakeholders
Security for Staff
Peacekeeping and Peace enforcement
Education in Closed Institutions
Education in Unsafe Areas
Monitoring and Evaluation
Who Should Evaluate
Monitoring Or Formative Evaluation
Measuring Impact
Importance of Prior Planning
Evaluation Methodology
Terms Of Reference
Evaluation Design Options
Data Collection Options
Legitimacy and Reliability
Time and Cost of Evaluations
Baseline Studies
Developing Organisational Capacity
Managing Evaluation Recommendations
System Learning
Maintenance Of Records
Staff and Volunteer Details
Logistical Arrangements
Best Practices and Lessons Learned Documentation
Preparing Reports
Archiving and Protecting Materials
Developing Continuity
Annexes
Contributors to Civic and Voter Education
Voter Registration
Introduction
Context
Overview
Guiding Principles
General Issues
Alternative Methods- Pro and Con
Periodic List
Periodic List - Advantages
Periodic List - Disadvantages
Continuous Register
Continuous Register - Advantages
Continuous Register- Disadvantages
Civil Registry
Civil Register - Advantages
Civil Register - Disadvantages
Administration Considerations
Encouraging Registration
Characteristics of Eligible Voters
Qualifications and Identification
Identification for Registration Purposes
Voter's Proof of Identification
The Voter Identification Card: Advantages and Disadvantages
Voluntary versus Mandatory Registration
Self-initiated versus State-Initiated Registration
Resident versus Non-resident Voters
Political Parties and Interest Groups
Voting location
Anonymous registration
Eligibility for simultaneous elections
Legal provisions to prevent fraud
Secondary uses of voter register
Multi-part forms
Outsourcing
Computerisation
Technologies
E-registration
Targeted registration
Voter registration methods and participation
Cost Considerations
Specific Administrative Issues
Planning
Legal and Administrative Framework
Logistics
Logistical Planning - Periodic List
Logistical Planning - Continuous Register
Logistical Planning - Civil Registry
Registration Data Collection
Procurement
Operational Infrastructure
Voter Education
Staff Selection and Training
Implementation
Compiling Registration Data
Storing Registration Data
Production of Preliminary Voters List
Method of Production
Voters’ Register Maintenance
Promotion Strategies
Gathering Changes to Preliminary List
Production of Final Voters List
Distribution of Final Voters List
Audit Trail Maintenance
Closing Date for Registration
List Revisions for Early Voters
Objection Hearings
Election Day Registration Additions and Revisions
Annexes
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
Biometric Voter Registration in Cameroon
Using Biometric Voter Registration for the 2015 Elections in Nigeria: An Interview with Professor Attahiru Jega
Electoral Integrity
Introduction
Overview
Guiding Principles
Context
Cost/Benefit Considerations
Principles of Electoral Integrity
Ethical Behaviour
Fairness and Impartiality
Transparency and Accountability
Legal Framework of Electoral Integrity
Constitution
Legislation
Regulations
Codes of Conduct
Institutional Framework of Electoral Integrity
Electoral Policy and Oversight
Electoral Management Body
Oversight Bodies
Political Party Organizations
Code of Conduct for Political Parties
Interest Group Organizations
Non-Governmental Organizations
Independent Observers
Media
Media Code of Conduct
Enforcement Agencies
Monitors of Election Integrity
Official Oversight
Oversight: Integrity Issues
Monitoring: Political Parties
Monitoring: Media
Monitoring: Individuals
Organized National Election Observation
National Election Observation: Efficacy
International Election Observation
International Observers: Roles and Rules
Evaluate Elections: Standards
Enforcement of Electoral Integrity
Types of Offences
Making a Complaint
Investigations
Duties and Ethical Conduct of Investigators
Decision to Investigate
Procedures and Powers of Investigators
Rights of Individuals in Investigations
Handling of Evidence
Investigator's Analysis
Decision to Prosecute
Audits
Prosecution and Judicial Proceedings
Rights of the Accused
Civil Litigation
Sentences and Penalties
Enforcement: Oversight and Monitoring
Investigating in Difficult Circumstances
Integrity in Election Administration
Election Management
Budget
Integrity Problems and Solutions
Staffing and Recruitment
Procurement
UNDP/IAPSO: Cost-Effective, Transparent Procurement for Elections
Electoral System
Boundary Delimitation
Electoral Calendar
Voter Education
Voter Registration
Registration by Mail and by Internet
Avoiding Voter Registration Fraud
Privacy Rights about Voter Information
Registration of Political Entities
Registration of Political Parties
Registration of Candidates
Threats to Constitutional or Social Order
Electoral Campaign
Access to Media
Opinion Polling
Political Finance
Political Finance Policy
Political Finance Regulation
Political Finance Enforcement
Clear Law and Regulations
Independent Political Finance Regulator
Political Finance Regulator: Oversight Powers
Political Finance Oversight - Disclosure
Political Finance Oversight - Audits
Political Finance Oversight - Investigations
Political Finance Regulator: Enforcement Powers
Enforcement Powers - Material Incentives
Enforcement Powers - Administrative
Enforcement Powers - Civil and Criminal
Political Finance: Access to Information
Voting Operations
Vote Secrecy
Election Security
Voting Mechanisms
Internet Voting
Discrimination, Intimidation and Fraud
Vote Counting
Electronic Vote Counting
Complaints and Appeals
Official Results
Annexes
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
Vote Buying
Abuse of Office and Misuse of Administrative Resources
Absence of Effective Legal Remedies
Official Oversight & Supervision
Results Management Systems
Introduction
Context
Overview
Guiding Principles
Application of Technology
Cost Considerations
Cost Components
Electoral System and Ballot Type Implications for the Count
Electoral Systems Counting Requirements for Different Electoral Systems
Ballot Type Counting Requirements
Transforming Votes to Seats
Different Types and Requirements for Vote Counting
Differences in terms of Where the Counting is Held
Differences in terms of How the Counting is Done
Basic Criteria and Procedures for Vote Counting
Criteria to Determine when Votes should Count as Valid
Special Considerations for Counting Votes Cast Outside the Country
Procedures for Vote Counting at Voting Stations
Opening/Closing Ballot Boxes
Reconciling Ballot Accounts
Sorting
Checking Validity of the Ballot
Separating Spoiled and Rejected Ballots
Separating Valid Ballots
Counting
Count of Spoiled and Rejected Ballots
Count of Valid Ballots
Verification of Count
Sealing the Ballots
Transmitting Voting Station Results
Voting Station Statement of Votes
Issuing of the Statement of Votes
Communicating Results
Consolidating Voting Results
Receiving Result Counts
Verification of Results
Consolidating Results: List Systems
Publicizing Election Results
Publishing Interim Election Results
Publicising Official Final Results
Challenging Results
Judicial Recounts
Procedures for Vote Counting at Counting Centres
Preparation for Ballot Box Transport
Creation of Ballot Account
Providing Security Controls
Creation of Transport Logs
Arrangement for Transport of Ballot Boxes to the Counting Centre
Transport of Ballot Boxes
Securing Ballot Boxes During Transportation
Unloading of Ballot Boxes
Completion of Transport Logs
Opening and Closing of Ballot Boxes
Sorting of Ballots
Checking Validity of the Ballot
Separating Spoiled and Rejected Ballots
Separating Valid Ballots
Counting
Count of Spoiled and Rejected Ballots
Count of Valid Ballots
Verification of Count
Sealing of the Ballot Box
Transmitting Counting Centre Results
Progress Reports; Cumulative Statement of Votes
Issuing the Statement of Votes
Communicating Results to National Level
Consolidating Voting Results
Receiving Results from Counting Centres
Creating an Audit Trail
Tallying Results Per Party or Candidate
Publicising Results
Annexes
Glossary
Bibliography and Additional Resources
Contributors
Case Studies
Ghana: Vote Counting using Majoritatrian and First-Past-the-Post
Indonesia: Counting the Votes for the 1999 Elections
Mozambique: Vote Counting and Tabulation
Russia: Counting Votes for Local Elections
Sweden: Counting Ballots
Afghanistan: Results Management System
Kenya: Results Management and Transmission System
Sierra Leone: Decentralized Election Results Tally 2012
Elections and Technology
Introduction
Overview
Guiding Principles
Context
Technologies with Electoral Applications
Telecommunications Technology
Networks
The Internet
Computer Hardware and Software
Word Processing
Spreadsheets
Databases
Other technologies
Managing Technology
Choosing and Acquiring Technology
Considerations on Technology Solutions
Costs and Benefits of Technology
Planning and Development Strategies
Information Technology Strategy
Implementation Methodologies
Needs Assessments, Business Cases, and Specifications
Development
Testing
Implementation
Development and Implementation Timeframes
Data Conversion
Systems Integration and Compatibility
Quality Assurance
Financing Technology
Budgeting
Funds Acquisition
Depreciation and Amortization Policies
Management Structure
Computer Systems Administration
Tele Communications Management
Database Management
Help Desk
System Library and Distribution
User Management
Computer Supplies and Consumables
Maintenance
Staffing, Training and Support
Evaluation and Audit
Minimizing Risks In Using Technology
Security
Ensuring Reliability of Data
Manual/Alternative Contingency Systems
System Verification, Testing and Maintenance
Insurance
Performance Safeguards
Encryption
Public Assurance Measures
Public Information and Privacy Policies
Technology for Boundary Delimitation
Using GIS to Draw District Boundaries
Using GIS to Evaluate Redistricting Plans
Requirements for Using GIS Software for Redistricting
Making the Decision to Use GIS for Redistricting
Technology for Regulation of Party and Candidates
Party Registration
Providing Information To Parties
Party And Campaign Financing - Regulation and Reporting
Candidate Nomination
Technology for Voter Registration
Purposes of Voter Registration
Voter Registration and the Electoral System
Impact of Voter Registration Methods
Voter Identification Methods
Voter Registration Processing
Environment
Database Design
Functions
Voter Register Data
Voter Identification
Geographic Information
Technology for Reaching Voters
Audio Visual Applications
Telephone
Automated Direct Mail
Internet
Computer Kiosks
Desktop Publishing
Special Needs Groups
Technology for Voting Operations
Voting Operation Steps
Technology for Voting
Mechanical Voting Systems
Electronic Voting Systems
Punch Cards
Optical Scanning Systems
Direct Recording Electronically (DRE)
Internet Voting
Technology for Corporate Management
Project Management
Personnel Management
Financial Management Systems
Supply and Inventory Management
The Future of Elections and Technology
Annexes
Bibliography
Contributors
Case Studies
An Electoral Register from Scratch: The Palestinian Elections of 20 January 1996
Russia - The State Automated Elections System
Saint Lucia
United States
2014 Indonesian Elections Case Study: Uploading millions of C1 result forms and achieving a crowdsourced outcome
Preventing Election-related Violence
Introduction
Overview
Electoral violence
Definitions
Motives of electoral violence
Violence against women in elections
Consequences of electoral violence
Factors that may trigger electoral violence
Internal factors
The electoral legal and institutional framework
Inadequate electoral law
An unfit electoral system
Inadequate electoral administrative rules
Planning of and preparation for the implementation of electoral activities
Poor performance of the electoral management bodies
Inadequate operational planning
An inadequate system for the resolution of electoral disputes
Inadequate funding, financing and budgeting
Inadequate electoral security arrangements
Training and information
Lack of training for political parties and media
Lack of training of security sector agencies
A poor voter information campaign
Registration
Problematic voter registration
Problematic registration of political parties and candidates
Problematic accreditation of domestic and international observers
Electoral campaigning
Unequal media access and favouritism
Provocative use of media by political parties
Provocative party rallying
Provocative and violent actions by political parties
Voting operations
Insufficiency, destruction and loss of sensitive and non-sensitive materials
Lack of transparency of special and external voting
Problematic election day operations
Problematic vote counting and tallying of the results
Verification of election results
Poor management of election results
Poor management of the final round of electoral appeals
Rejection of the election results
External factors
Poor socio-economic conditions
Social and political exclusion
Conflict relating to changing power dynamics
Gender-based discrimination and violence
The presence of non-state armed actors
The presence of organized crime
Grievances relating to genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes
Human rights violations
Environmental hazards
Unethical media reporting
Prevention and mitigation
Three layered approach for the prevention and mitigation
Legal and institutional electoral framework
Planning and preparation for the implementation of electoral activities
Training and information
Registration of voters, political parties and election observers
Electoral campaigning
Voting operations
Election results announcement
The post-electoral phase
Electoral violence early warning
Observable indicators and sources
Data collection, analysis and presentation
Contributors
Youth and Elections
OVERVIEW
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
CONTEXT
KEY CONCEPTS
YOUTH PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL PROCESSES
Youth as Agents for Change
Youth and Formal Political Processes
Young people and voting
Young people in political decision-making positions
Young people in political parties
The importance of youth participation in formal political processes
Obstacles to Youth Participation
Obstacles at the structural level
Obstacles at the individual level
Obstacles at the organizational level
Legislation that affects the environment for youth political participation
Election-related violence
Myths about Youth and their Political Participation
Are young people politically apathetic?
Are young people too immature to be included in decision-making?
Do young people have a propensity for violence and extremism?
Meaningful Youth Participation Approaches
Formal participation
Informal participation
Participation beyond formal electoral processes
A continuum of youth participation
Viewing young people through different lenses
Characteristics of meaningful youth political participation
Capacity development
Youth as Peacemakers
YOUTH: LEGISLATIVE AND POLICY FRAMEWORK
International Legal Framework
National Legal Framework
Quotas for Youth
Lowering the Voting Age
Lowering the Age of Eligibility to Run for Office
Political Finance Legislation
Choice of Electoral System
Compulsory Voting
YOUTH AND POLITICAL PARTIES
The Importance of Political Parties
Political Parties’ Codes of Conduct
Candidates and Recruitment
Youth quotas
Political Finance
Youth Party Wings
Cross-Party and Multisector Alliances and Networks
Link between Political Parties, Youth and Violence
Youth and Elections: Information and Education
EMBs as Providers of CVE
Using Multiple Media Platforms and Technology
Traditional media: television and radio
ICTs to empower youth
Social media
Campaigning to prevent election-related violence
Websites, mobile applications, and games
Text messages
The digital divide
Media as Watchdog
Schools
Universities
Other Learning Opportunities
Sport
Artistic and cultural activities
Information centers
Mock (or simulated) elections
Competitions
ELECTION MANAGEMENT AND VOTING PROCESSES
Youth in EMBs
Selection, Recruitment, and Retention of Youth in EMBs
Organizational governance of EMBs
Youth working at voting stations
EMB youth policy, focal points, and committees
Institutionalizing youth inclusion
Youth and security – UNSCR 2250
EMBs and youth research
Data Collection
Registration
Key obstacles to registration
First-time voters
Driving youth registration
Enhancing Voting Processes
Voting processes for youth engagement
Use of voter advice applications
Internet Voting
Youth as Observers
Benefits of youth as observers
Observing elections with a youth focus
Crowdsourcing to monitor elections
Post-election
Make voices of youth heard in parliament and government
Facilitate youth-led national youth councils and/or parliaments
Invite young people to visit and intern in national parliaments
Train and support young parliamentarians
Initiate and support youth councils at local level
Annex - Contributors
Gender and Elections
OVERVIEW
CONTEXT
GUIDING PRINCIPLES
KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS ON GENDER AND ELECTIONS
Key concepts about gender and gender equality
Women’s roles in the electoral process
Barriers to women’s effective participation in the electoral process
Statistics and data on women’s participation in the electoral process
Women’s representation in parliaments
Women’s representation in national government
Women’s participation in local government
Women’s participation as voters and electors
Women’s participation in electoral administration
Discrimination in the electoral process on grounds of gender identity and sexual orientation and barriers to the effective participation of LGBTI persons
Intersectionality, crosscutting identities and multiple discrimination
SUPPORTING LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORKS FOR MEANINGFUL GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN THE ELECTORAL PROCESS
The impact of legal frameworks on gender equality and women’s participation in the electoral process
International human rights instruments on women’s participation and gender equality in the electoral process
Domestic legal frameworks and provisions on gender equality and women’s participation in the electoral process
Peace agreements
Constitutions
Electoral laws
Political party laws
Political and campaign finance legislation
EMB’s regulations and procedures
Political party internal rules and regulations
Codes of conduct
Gender equality laws and legislation addressing violence against women in politics and elections
The impact of electoral systems on women’s representation
Key concepts about electoral systems and types
Electoral formula
District size
Ballot structure
Temporary Special Measures to promote gender equality and women’s participation in the electoral process
Key concepts about Temporary Special Measures
Gender quotas in elections
Legislated candidate quotas
Legislated reserved seats
Voluntary political party quotas
Quota provisions to fit the electoral system
Ranking order rules and placement mandates in quota rules
Gender-targeted public funding for political parties
The shift from quotas to parity democracy
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN POLITICAL PARTIES
Gender-mainstreaming within the internal organization of political parties
Gender-sensitive legal frameworks and policies in political parties
Gender audits and gender action plans in political parties
Measures to promote women’s participation in decision-making
Women’s wings in political parties
Gender mainstreaming in policy development
Candidate recruitment and women’s participation
Funding and campaign support for women candidates
Strengthening capacities of women candidates
Political parties’ electoral monitoring from a gender perspective
Political parties promoting LGBTI participation
GENDER MAINSTREAMING WITHIN ELECTORAL MANAGEMENT BODIES
Sex-disaggregated data and statistics
Gender assessments of the electoral process
Gender internal policies and strategic planning in EMBs
Integrating the gender approach into the institutional structure of EMBs: gender units and focal points
Gender balance in EMBs: board and staff
Gender-sensitive culture in the workplace
Gender training for electoral staff
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY AND WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION THROUGHOUT THE ELECTORAL CYCLE
Gender equality in voter registration
Gender equality in candidate nomination and registration
Gender equality in civic and voter education
Supporting leaders and candidates during the electoral campaign
Gender equality in the voting process
Polling stations location
Family and proxy voting
Gender segregated voting
Regulations on the vote of displaced people
Special identification procedures
Gender equality in dispute resolution mechanisms and judicial review of elections
ENHANCING A GENDER APPROACH IN ELECTION OBSERVATION AND MONITORING
Developing a gender approach in international and domestic election observation
Promoting LGBTI participation through election observation
PROMOTING GENDER-SENSITIVE MEDIA COVERAGE OF THE ELECTORAL PROCESS
Gender, media and elections: gender censorship and gender-based stereotypes
Gender-sensitive monitoring of media covering the electoral process
Gender trainings for journalists
Gender-related provisions in codes of conduct for media in elections
Social media and women’s political participation
VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN IN ELECTIONS AND OTHER FORMS OF GENDER-BASED ELECTORAL VIOLENCE
Key concepts about violence against women in elections
Action points to fight VAWE
Mapping and measuring VAWE
Integrating VAWE into election observation and violence monitoring
Legal and policy reform to prevent and respond to VAWE
Preventing and mitigating VAWE through electoral arrangements
Working with political parties to prevent and reduce VAWE
Raising awareness on VAWE and changing norms
Other forms of electoral gender-based violence: Homophobic and transphobic violence in elections
CIVIL SOCIETY ADVOCACY FOR GENDER EQUALITY IN POLITICS AND INCLUSIVE PARTICIPATION IN THE ELECTORAL PROCESS
Freedoms of peaceful assembly and association and gender equality
Women’s associations advocating for gender equality in politics and elections
Male allies and social norm change in politics and elections: building transformative masculinities
LGBTI groups advocating for political inclusion
PROMOTING GENDER EQUALITY IN PARLIAMENTS DURING THE POST-ELECTORAL PERIOD
Building gender-sensitive parliaments
Women’s parliamentary caucuses
Capacity development and training on gender equality for parliamentarians
Engaging in legal and policy reform to promote gender equality
Parliaments and LGBTI political inclusion and participation
ANNEX I. ADDITIONAL COUNTRY-BASED CASE STUDIES ON GENDER AND ELECTIONS
CONTRIBUTORS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GLOSSARY: GENDER AND ELECTIONS
Election Observation
What is International Election Observation?
Conditions for International Observation
What is Citizen Observation?
Conditions for Citizen Observation
What are the Main Differences Between International and Citizen Observation?
Origins of Election Observation
Democracy Promotion After World War II
Collapse of Communism and Rise of Inter-Governmental Observation
The Rise and Proliferation of Citizen Observation and PVT Technology in the 1980’s
The 1990s: Growth, Collaboration, and Professionalization of the Field
Challenges of International Observation in the 1990’s
The 2000’s: Defining Principles and Building Consensus
Citizen Observation as the Future of Election Observation
Approaches to Observation: Methodology and Tools
Overall Evaluations: The Decline of “Free and Fair”
International Obligations: A Consensus Approach
Obligations as the Basis of Comprehensive Assessment Frameworks
Putting Methodology to Work: Election Day Checklists
Long-term Reporting
Additional Observation Tools:
The Example of ELMO
Early Warning and Parallel Vote Tabulation
Observation Mission Models
After Election Day: Recommendations, Follow up, Advocacy
Methodological Resources
Stakeholder Relationships
Relationship Between International and Citizen Observers
Cooperation Among International Observation Groups
Cooperation among Citizen Observer Groups
Government Authorities and International Observation
Government Authorities and Citizen Observers
Political Parties and Candidates
Media
Donors
Challenges to Observation
Common Challenges
Quality Control
Technology and Public Confidence
Measuring Impact
Mobility and Security
Numbers and Duration
Conclusion
Contact
Privacy Policy
Terms of Use
Accessibility
Site Map
Copyright and Disclaimer
©
1998-2025 ACE project
