In addition to being victims of targeted attacks, journalists often place themselves in the midst of sensitive or volatile situations – such as transitional elections. They are often victims of violence at the hand of mob-mentality, war, and conflict, and often with little to no protection from authorities. During 2007, one of the deadliest years for journalists, at least eighteen journalists were killed while covering war or dangerous assignments. At least another 51 were murdered that year in connection to political, human rights, corruption, and other media coverage.[iii]
Every year Reporters Without Borders releases a Press Freedom Index, a compilation of attacks on media personnel throughout the world. For 2011/2012, the countries with the worst index ratings continued to be Turkmenistan, North Korea and Eritrea.[iv] The government under President Issaias Afewerki of Eritrea, the country with the lowest index rating, continued to stifle any media freedom whatsoever through routine arrests and deaths of journalists. As of August 2012, at least 32 journalists were still in prison. Some have been in prison for more than 10 years, and each has been without charge or trial.[v]
Countries like Iran and China, Vietnam, Sudan, Burma, and Belarus follow close behind with abysmal track records of media safety and freedom. Violence against the media has been closely associated with movements for democratic change and free and fair elections, for example the Arab Spring uprisings. [vi]
While, at the time of writing, there are no comprehensive statistics for worldwide attacks on journalists during elections, a close look at individual country records, as well as statistics on media personnel killed for covering political issues, illuminates the fact that election campaigns are one of the most dangerous periods of time for media.[vii] Furthermore, attacks during elections are often subtle, covered up, or intentionally confused, out of perpetrators’ fears of losing public support during the elections. In other words attacks on journalists will often be wrongfully blamed on non-election related violence or causes. This may also be a period when governments are reluctant to curb climates of impunity for fear of losing political support, or stirring up unrest. Indeed impunity often outright flourishes during election periods.
For example, attacks on journalists spiked in the lead up to the 2011 elections in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Many of the attacks were at the hand of candidates and political activists who, unhappy at coverage of opposition leaders and candidates, chose not to utilize right to reply and instead attacked journalists themselves.[viii]
One of the worst attacks on media in history was elections-related: the slaughter of 57 individuals including 32 journalists in 2009 in the town of Ampatuan in Southern Philippines. The victims were accompanying a convoy of supporters of a local politician who was seeking to be a candidate for provincial councils. Gunmen in support of a local rival (the mayor) attacked the convoy and disposed of the bodies in mass graves.[ix] Impunity continues to create fear among media and the general populations in the area as surviving witnesses continue to be killed as the trial proceeds.[x]
In addition to being direct targets of attacks, journalists are also often the victims of more generalized election violence such as riots or proximity to car bombs or rocket attacks directed at voting sites or transportation of sensitive voting material. As an example, in early 2012 roughly 100 Indian journalists were attacked by up to 4000 voters who were angry at elections results. The journalists were forced to lock themselves in a school for several hours until the violence had died down.[xi]
The period immediately following an election can also be extremely dangerous for journalists, as exemplified in the crackdown on independent media after President Yoweri Museveni took office in Uganda after the February 2011 elections. Similarly, the period after the July 2012 Mexico presidential elections has been particularly brutal for journalists.[xii]
Given the vital role media plays in ensuring fair and transparent processes and the crippling effect safety can affect this role, it is essential that media are provided the tools, the knowledge, and resources to best protect themselves while covering elections. Media safety is an important aspect of media development initiatives in the developing world, as according to a Committee to Protect Journalists guide to media safety, “[n]early nine in 10 work-related fatalities since 1992 have involved local journalists covering news in their home countries…And more than 95 percent of journalists jailed worldwide are local reporters, photojournalists, bloggers, and editors…”[xiii] Most importantly, journalists must understand that they have the right to decline risky assignments.
Media safety includes basic preparedness skills and first aid training. Media development agencies, security agencies, and/or EMBs (or other stakeholders) should provide training courses which cover the following where relevant:
- Health precautions (including any necessary vaccinations and contact information of health facilities in the area);
- Safety training in conflict situations (including shoot-outs, road blocks, and kidnapping) and war zones;
- Safety tips for reporting on large crowds and understanding mob mentality;
- Tools for dealing with detention and arrest;
- Mine and Unexploded Ordinance awareness training;
- Communication tools while journalists are field based;
- Safety guidelines for female journalists reporting in conservative environments, or environments where women are targets of assaults;
- Tools to deal with traumatic stress;
- Guidance for providing and receiving post assignment debriefing.
Media safety also requires that media staff develop acute awareness of the socio-political environment and potential volatilities at hand. Professionalism can also be a significant factor of media safety, as media can often unintentionally (or intentionally) incite further violence or insecurity, through inaccurate or inflammatory reporting.
EMBs should develop policies and guidelines on media safety in the election process, including briefing EMB staff (particularly voting centre staff) on media rights, presence and safety. Where necessary, EMBs should liaise with security agencies in order to establish any special measures required to protect media personnel at elections sites. EMBs, media development agencies and donors should coordinate to ensure adequate funding and resources are provided for journalist safety. (More information on media training and professionalism is provided in chapter Media Development.)
What is ultimately required however, is concerted advocacy and dedication on the part of all stakeholders to ensure a legal framework wholly supportive of media freedom and rights, and furthermore, that a country’s government and system has the resources as well as will power to implement this framework.
Any physical attack or interference with a journalist is likely to be a crime under the ordinary law of the country. There are also obligations under international law to protect journalists (see the section on Protecting the Safety of the Media in International Law on Media and Elections). In view of the particular importance of the media in elections, some countries create specific offences related to attacks on journalists during elections.
However, as important as what the law stipulates, is the message that is clearly communicates to all those taking part in the elections. Journalists' organizations, such as the International Federation of Journalists, usually recommend that governments (and electoral authorities) give a clear public statement at the start of the election campaign, informing all parties and the law enforcement agencies that the media are an essential part of the democratic process - and that anyone preventing them from going about their business will be dealt with using the full force of the law. Of course, the danger to journalists is not limited to over-enthusiastic party activists - often they are at risk from law enforcement officials trained in the ways of dictatorship, hence the importance of clear public instructions as well as necessary implementation (attacks are fully investigated and the perpetrators brought to justice).
Codes of conduct for political parties are a device sometimes used in situations where violence is likely. These too should include a clear statement on the importance of the media to the election process and the need to refrain from attacks on them.
Physical protection of journalists may be more difficult, since an intrusive police presence may interfere with the media's freedom to gather information. However, law enforcement officials should also be under instructions about the responsibility to protect journalists against attack, physically if necessary. (More information on media rights and legal frameworks is provided in Legal Framework for Media and Elections.)
The following are resources for information on statistics of media attacks as well as media safety guidelines.
The website for the Committee to Protect of Journalists, (http://www.cpj.org/) provides statistics (including impunity ratings per country), reports and information on attacks on media around the world each year (http://www.cpj.org/killed/2012/). They also provide in-depth reporting and advocacy for media freedom. The Journalist Security Guide is a handbook on covering news in dangerous situations and includes information on digital security: (cpj.org/security/guide.pdf)
Reporters Without Borders (http://en.rsf.org/), advocates of media freedom and security, provides a yearly Press Freedom Index, (http://en.rsf.org/spip.php?page=classement&id_rubrique=1043) ranking countries according to their performance in media safety each year. The Reporters Without Borders Handbook for Journalists provides advice on how journalists can stay safe in dangerous situations (http://en.rsf.org/handbook-for-journalists-17-04-2007,21744.html).
The International Press Institute (http://www.freemedia.at/home.html) is a network of media individuals dedicated to the furtherance of press freedom and media safety.
[i] Quote belongs to Keith Somerville, journalism lecturer at the UK’s Brunel University, as cited in: Linawati Sidarto, “ICC – Kenya: the role of media in hate crimes”, International Justice Desk, April 5, 2011.
[xiii] Frank Smyth, Journalist Security Guide: Covering the news in a Dangerous and Changing World, (Committee to Protect Journalists, 2012), 3, cpj.org/security/guide.pdf
