Cooperation through EMB Networks

Globalization has brought rapid and dynamic changes to organisational management, including election administration, and such changes are influencing EMBs to move away from the hierarchical structures and routines of the past.

Electoral networks are important for supporting electoral managers around the world to cope with the rapidity of change in the environments in which elections take place.

The concept of entities or bodies connected to or interested in election machinery working together to improve electoral standards has been developing along three parallel lines: national, regional, and international. Today more than ever before, an increasing number of election managers work together through well-established networks to enhance their capacity to effectively manage elections in their respective countries. Gone are the days when election managers were operating in isolation from each other and without any external support to improve their knowledge and skills.

The next set of files will discuss issues of EMB networking by first defining what election networks are and why they matter, and then identifying various networks which exist around the world: national, regional, and global. The files will also distinguish between networks of election management bodies versus the networks of organisations which support democratic elections, which are known as election support networks and which comprise non-governmental organisations.

What Are Electoral Networks and Why Do they Matter?

The term electoral network refers to a system of collaboration among electoral practitioners to find solutions to common problems and to build innovations through sustained sharing of ideas and experiences. Electoral networks are important for supporting electoral managers around the world to cope with the rapidity of change in the environments in which elections take place.

Electoral networks may exist at national level to serve the interests of individual electoral practitioners, at the regional level to promote the interests of various EMBs which exist in a particular region, and at the global level to promote cooperation among EMB networks.

Electoral networks foster capacity development among electoral managers through information and experience sharing, which is a useful input for EMB sustainability. Such networks also serve as useful forums where electoral practitioners address concerns which affect their vocation, such as EMB independence, EMB funding, and the use of technology in elections, to mention but a few thorny issues that can be analysed through collegial sharing of ideas.

National Electoral Networks

In the UK, there is a professional network, the Association of Election Administrators (AEA), to which all senior electoral administrators (returning officers) belong. The AEA conducts regular training and education for electoral administrators, acts to safeguard their interests, and serves as a network of resources and expertise for its members. It offers professional qualification courses, which are mandatory for appointment to electoral related positions in UK local authorities (EMBs).

In the United States, the National Association of State Election Directors and the National Association of Secretaries of State serve as useful forums for electoral managers to exchange views and improve their capacities and performance. The International Association of Clerks, Recorders, Election Officials and Treasurers (IACREOT) holds regular electoral professional development courses for its members, and annual trade shows for electoral related equipment and supplies. The National Association of Clerks and County Recorders (NACRC), the Election Center, and the National Association of Counties also organize events for local election officials.

In Australia, the Electoral Council of Australia, a consultative forum comprising the national and state electoral commissioners and chief electoral Officers, meets regularly. Its main objectives are to ensure the quality of the electoral registers for all elections in Australia and to improve Australian electoral administration in general. The Association of Bosnian Election Officials (AEOBIH) consists of electoral officials from the three entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina and holds conferences, seminars, and other consultations to promote democratic, open, and transparent elections.

Regional EMB Networks

During the 1980s and 1990s, cooperation between EMBs at the regional level intensified, and a number of regional associations were established to facilitate and sustain cooperation. The objectives of the early regional electoral associations which were formed in the 1980s were, however, so general as to be little more than a framework pointing to desirable goals with little specific commitment.

The Association of Electoral Institutions of Central America and the Caribbean (known as the Tikal Protocol), established in Guatemala in 1985, was a representative body of electoral organisations designed to achieve cooperation, exchange information, and facilitate consultation. Its recommendations were not binding on its member organisations. The Association of South American Electoral Organisations (the Quito Protocol) was formed in 1989 along similar lines.

The Inter-American Union of Electoral Organisations (UNIORE) was established in 1991 to promote cooperation between the electoral organisations and associations created under the Tikal and Quito protocols. It extended the potential scope of cooperation to provide support and assistance, as far as practicable, to member organisations which requested them.

Although the elements of information exchange, cooperation, and consultation still featured prominently in objectives of associations formed in the 1990’s, there was greater focus on broad common goals, such as the promotion of free and fair elections, independent and impartial election organisations, and transparent electoral procedures. Specific common regional goals were emphasised, such as cooperation in the improvement of electoral laws and practices, promotion of participation by citizens, political contestants, and non-partisan NGOs in electoral processes, and establishment of resource centres for research and information. These associations also placed a high level of importance on the development of professional electoral officials with high integrity, a strong sense of public service, knowledge, and experience of electoral processes, and a commitment to democratic elections.

The associations which typify these new dimensions include:

• the Association of Central and Eastern European Electoral Officials (ACEEEO), established in 1991;
• the Association of African Election Authorities (AAEA), established in 1997;
• the Association of Asian Election Authorities (AAEA), established in 1997; and
• the Association of Caribbean Electoral Organisations (ACEO), established in 1998.
  

 

Other regional networks which came into being around the same time include the Latin America-based Center for Electoral Promotion and Assistance (CAPEL); the Pacific Islands, Australia, New Zealand Electoral Administrators Network (PIANZEA); and the Southern African Development Community Electoral Commissions’ Forum (SADC ECF).

Although the mandates of these networks differ in detail, they all aim to promote the free flow of information among election practitioners and to provide electoral assistance to their member EMBs. For example, the objectives of ACEEEO are the:

1. promotion of open and transparent elections through an exchange of experience and information related to election law and procedure, technology, administrative practice, and voter education;
2. promotion of the training and further education of election officials and international observers;
3. promotion of the principle of independent and impartial election authorities and administrators;
4. development of professional election officials of high integrity, with a strong sense of public service, knowledge of electoral practices, and commitment to democratic elections;
5. promotion of the principle of participation in electoral processes by citizens, political contestants, and non-partisan civil organisations; and
6. development of resources for election-related information and research.

 

The potential benefits of regional cooperation through associations of electoral organisations are considerable. New EMBs can draw on support and experience from more established electoral authorities, can accelerate their capacity-building potential by exchange of personnel, and may even be able to borrow electoral materials at relatively short notice. The development of common standards with respect to free and fair elections and the quality of electoral services may have a positive effect on losers accepting election results.

The development of EMB networks is constrained in practice by two issues affecting individual EMBs: lack of resources to participate in the association’s activities and fear of compromising perceptions of their independence. Some EMBs shy away from active participation because they fear that dependence on the government for resources for travel, research, or other programme activities might compromise their independence. Resource constraints also restrict the activities of the associations themselves, which have to depend mainly on outside funding.

Global Electoral Networks

The development of regional associations of electoral organisations and the increasing internationalization of elections through advocacy for international standards for democratic elections led to the establishment of a global forum for discussion of EMB collaboration.

The development of regional associations of electoral organisations in the 1980s and 1990s and the increasing internationalisation of elections through advocacy for international standards for democratic elections precipitated the need to set up a global forum for discussion of EMB collaboration. The Conference of the Global Electoral Organisation (GEO) Network, which was first convened in Ottawa in April 1999, is a worldwide meeting of regional associations of election officers. GEO conferences have the following objectives:

a) to provide an opportunity for associations of election officials to link with each other in a global professional network;

b) to offer organisational and programmatic models for collaboration and cooperative ventures among members and between associations, or with the supporters of electoral governance projects;

c) to serve as a forum in which to identify areas of need in electoral governance, and programmes which can be developed to respond to those needs; and

d) to identify a common agenda for all election management bodies around the world.

A global network of electoral organisations was a natural progression from regional electoral associations. The pillars on which regional electoral associations are built such as exchange of information, consultation, cooperation, technical assistance on bilateral and regional levels, will apply, albeit on a wider scale. A global network that is based on regional electoral associations is well placed to draw upon the strengths of those associations and be equipped to address emerging or potential global challenges in electoral administration.

The practical operations of the global network may best revolve around the promotion of knowledge and experience gained in the development of electoral procedures, joint research on matters relating to important election processes and issues, and promotion of international discussions on electoral issues with a view to furthering democratic values and governance. A global network is well placed to encourage and facilitate the publication of electoral materials by the various regional associations and to promote the exchange of expertise and the secondment of specialists in technical fields.

Various electoral issues could be treated with advantage at the global level and set the stage for adaptation at the regional or national levels. These issues could include:

1. improved cost-effectiveness in election organisation;
2. principles and good practices in election management;
3. new election technologies, their effectiveness and affordability;
4. legislative regimes for elections and referendums; and
5. model regimes for resolution of electoral disputes.
   

Electoral Support Networks

Apart from EMB networks, several networks exist around the world which are generally known as election support networks, and which include civil society organisations, such as churches, media organisations, human rights organisations, women’s organisations, and other community-based organisations. Election support networks have emerged to provide coordination and support services to non-state actors working in the arena of supporting democracy and electoral processes. Some domestic networks may consist of tens or even hundreds of individual organisations based regionally or nationally. The key electoral-related activities undertaken by electoral support networks include election observation and monitoring, civic and voter education, and electoral reform.

A good example of a national election support network is the Zimbabwe Electoral Support Network (ZESN), which is a coalition of NGOs operating in the field of good governance, democracy, and elections. A similar network had earlier been formed in Kenya, where the National Election Monitoring Unit, a network of various local professional and commercial bodies, came together to press for electoral reform and then organised thousands of monitors to monitor the first multiparty elections of 1992.

The post-military regime transitional elections of 1998-99 in Nigeria spawned a number of civil society organisations, which formed various networks to further their participation in electoral reform and election observation. There were regional networks aimed at furthering the cause of women’s participation in the elections as candidates and as voters. Other networks were primarily interested in constitutional and legal reforms relating to elections; while other networks were interested in civic and voter education. These networks, the largest of which was the Transition Monitoring Group (TMG), did a creditable job assisting with civic education and monitoring the election preparations and polling. The TMG (and many other domestic networks) survived the election and post-election period, and was active in preparations for the 2003 elections, during which time the TMG network grew to more than 100 NGOs.

At the SADC regional level, there is the SADC Electoral Support Network, which comprises civil society organisations in the region which are working in the democracy and electoral fields.

The Bangkok-based Asian Network for Free Elections (ANFREL), formed in 1997, has 21 member organisations from 11 countries: Bangladesh, Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Japan, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. ANFREL undertakes election observation activities as well as research, advocacy, information dissemination, and training activities on issues related to elections, democratisation, and good governance. It has observed elections in 15 Asian countries. The general goals of NGO networks are to involve the member organisations in pre-election activities, as well as implementing voting day programs.

It is often recognised that the required degree of specialisation resides in individual organisations and not necessarily in the network itself. The network itself usually takes on the more generalised tasks such as training assistance, standardization of procedures, and technical support to member organisations. Many NGO networks devote significant time and resources to supporting the national EMB programs of training and voter education. Many specialise in election monitoring or observation; and there are some NGO networks that contribute to the resolution of election disputes.

The contribution of domestic networks involved in election improvement has been considerable in new and emerging democratic States. The development of domestic networks of this type is often encouraged and provided with resources by international donors, who see them as an instrument of positive influence on the acceptability or otherwise of the election results, and an easier managed target for assistance than multiple individual organisations. Networks and their member organisations may be required to be accredited by the national EMB to operate in particular election activities and to conform to the goals and standards set by the EMB. There have been cases where individual member organisations of networks are refused accreditation for election observation on the grounds that they have a political agenda. There was at least one reported case in Nigeria in 1998-99 elections of an individual member organisation of a prominent network behaving in a partisan manner during election observation.

A trend is emerging in some regions whereby faith-based NGOs are joining secular NGOs in networks to participate in civic and voter education, as well as election observation. One such network is the Peoples Voter Education Network (JPPR) in Indonesia. JPPR is an Indonesia–wide coalition, primarily comprising Islamic mass-based organisations but also including Christian mass-based organisations and religious and secular NGOs. For the 2004 legislative and presidential elections in Indonesia, JPPR undertook voter education and election observation activities, fielding over 100,000 observers for the July presidential election.

Summary: Cooperation through EMB Networks

• Electoral networks promote information exchange and improvement in electoral processes, providing opportunities for EMBs to share experiences and good practices.
• National associations of electoral administrators, such as those in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the UK, and the USA, can play a significant role in professional development, information exchange, and as a lobby group for electoral reforms.
• Regional EMB networks provide opportunities to EMBs to assist each other through drawing on the experience of longer established EMBs, personnel exchanges, pooling of research and information, and equipment sharing.
• Global electoral networks, such as the GEO Network, offer collaborative opportunities for EMBs to share knowledge and improve electoral governance.
• Community-based electoral support networks can assist EMBs with additional resources for activities such as training and voter education and information, and in transmitting information