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Notas Finales
Panorama General
1. Para más ejemplos, veáse el documento Frequently Asked Questions , preparado por la Unidad de Servicios Informativos de IFES en 1997.
El Control del Fraude, la Corrupción y las Prácticas Injustas
2. Financing the 1972 Election, Lexington, Mass., D.C. Heath and Co., 1976, p. 55.
Diferentes Tipos de Regulación
3. Ver las páginas. 7, 23 y 29 del documento The Funding of Political Parties in European Community Member States, Luxembourgo, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, segunda edición, 1991, p. 17.
4. Ver el capítulo 9, 'Regulating Political Finance: British Style,' de Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980, Washington, DC., American Enterprise Institute, 1981.
Asignación de Tiempo/Reparto de Recursos
5. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, Washington, DC, julio de 1995, referencias LL95-4,95-1354, p.5.
Grietas en la ley
6. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, 'Memorandum', House of Commons: Home Affairs Committee, Funding of Political Parties, Londres, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, sesión 1992-92, no 726, del 20 de julio de 1993.
Los Partidos como Fiscalizadores de la Elección
7. NDI Handbook: How Domestic Organizations Monitor Elections, An A to Z Guide, publicado por el National Democratic Institute for International Affairs, 1995.
Registro de Candidatos para la Elección Presidencial
8. Austin Ranney, 'Candidate Selection', en Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections, David Butler, Howard R. Penniman y Austin Ranney eds., Washington, DC, American Enterprise Institute, 1981, p. 97.
9. Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO), Election Law Compendium of Central and Eastern Europe, Kyev, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), 1995, pp. 304-5.
Registro de Partidos/Candidatos para Elecciones
10. Fuente: Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, 8.08.
11. Fuente: todas las citas proceden de Australian Electoral Commission. Federal Registration of Political Parties, Canberra, Australian Government Printing Service, 1996.
Regulación de Nominaciones en Sistemas Mayoritarios
12. Canadian Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Reforming Electoral Democracy: Final Report, Ottawa, Communication Group Publishing, 1991, volumen 1, p. 256.
Regulación de las Nominaciones en los Sistemas de Representación Proporcional
13. Austin Ranney, "Candidate Selection", en Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections, op. cit., p. 84.
Firmas
14. Fuentes: Richard S. Katz. Democracy and Elections, Nueva York, Oxford University Press, 1997, tabla 14.2 y, para los casos de Polonia y Rusia, Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO), Election Law Compendium of Central and Eastern Europe, op. cit., p.p. 229 y 280.
Depósitos
15. Richard S. Katz, Democracy and Elections, op. cit., pp. 255-61, tabla 14.2 y, para el caso de Namibia, información de Gerhard Ttemeyer.
Restricciones a las Candidaturas
16. Canadian Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Reforming Electoral Democracy: Final Report, op. cit., p. 271.
Financiamiento de Partidos y Candidatos
17. En Arthur B. Gunlicks editor, Campaign and Party Finance in North America and Western Europe, Boulder, Colorado, Westview, 1992, p. 260
18. En la introducción del texto Political Finance among the Democracies, Herbert E. Alexander y Rei Shiratori eds., Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1994, p.3.
Directo
19. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980, Washington, DC., American Enterprise Institute, 1981, p. 33.)
20. Khayyam Z. Paltiel, 'Political Financing Abroad: Contrasts and Effects', en Parties, Interest Groups, and Campaign Finance Laws, Michael J. Malbin ed., Washington D.C., American Enterprise Institute, 1980 , p. 358.
21. Herbert E. Alexander, 'Money and politics: rethinking a conceptual framework", en Comparative Political Finance in the 1980s, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 14.
22. Karl-Heinz Nassmacher, 'Structure and impact of public subsidies to political parties in Europe", en Comparative Political Finance in the 1980s, op. cit., p. 247.
Fórmulas de Financiamiento
23. Fuentes: para Alemania, Werner Kaltefleiter y Karl-Heinz Nassmacher, 'The New German System of Public Subsidies to Political Parties', en Political Parties in Democracy, Josef Thesing y Wilhelm Hofmeister eds., Sankt Augustin, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, 1995; para Nicaragua, Guy S. Goodwin-Gill, Free and Fair Elections: International Law and Practice, Ginebra, Inter-Parliamentary Union, 1994, p. 58; for Cánada y Alemania: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington D.C., julio de 1995, LL95-4,95-1354, pp. 49-50 y74-75.
Costos y respuesta del público
24. Fuentes: para Austria: Hubert Sickinger y Rainer Nick, Politisches Geld: Parteifinanzierung in sterreich, Taur, Tirol, Kulturverlag, 1990, p.130; Francia: Herbert E. Alexander y Rei Shiratori, eds., Political Finance among the Democracies, Boulder, Colorado,Westview Press, 1994, p. 93; Alemania: Hans Herbert von Arnim, Die Partei, der Abgeordnete und das Geld: Parteienfinazierung in Deutschland, Munic,: Knauer, 1996 p. 129; México: Juan Molinar Horcacitas, 'Financing political parties in Mexico', en Financing Party Politics in Europe and Latin America, Carlos Malamud y Eduardo Posada-Carb eds., Londres, Macmillan and Institute of Latin American Studies, 1998. Tabla 2; Estados Unidos: Milton C. Cummings Jr. y David Wise, Democracy Under Pressure, Fort Worth, Texas, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, séptima edición, 1993 , p. 300; otros paises: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, Washington D.C., julio de 1995, LL95-4,95-1354, p.p. 49, 92 ,129, 137, 165 183
Opinión pública sobre el subsidio estatal a los partidos
25. Gullan Gidlund, 'Conclusions,' en , The Public Purse and Political Parties: Public Financing of Political Parties in Nordic Countries, Matti Wiberg ed., Helsinki, The Finnish Political Science Association, 1991, p. 179.
Gacetas Partidistas y Organizaciones Especiales Partidistas
26. 'Structure and impact of public subsidies of political parties in Europe,' en Comparative Political Finance in the 1980s, Herbert E. Alexander ed., Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989, p. 241.
27. Fuente: Khayyam Z. Paltiel, 'Campaign Finance: Contrasting Practices and Reforms,' en Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections, David Butler, Howard R. Penniman y Austin Ranney eds., Washington, DC., American Enterprise Institute, 1981, p. 164 ss.
Concesiones Fiscales
28. Dian Schefold, 'Background and Basic Principles of Financing of Political Parties.' en Political Parties in Democracy, op. cit., p. 350.
Cuotas por Membresía
29. Ibid. p.p. 343-44. En este capítulo se utilizan los hallazgos de Dimitris T. Tsatsos, et.al., editors, Parteienrecht im europaeischen vergleich, Baden-Baden, Nomos, 1990.
Agrupaciones Empresariales
30. Khayyam Z. Paltiel, 'Campaign Finance: Contrasting Practices and Reforms.' en Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections, op. cit., p. 144.
31. Citado en Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980, Washington, DC., American Enterprise Institute, 1981, p. 113.
32. W.T. Stanbury, Money in Politics: Financing Federal Parties and Candidates in Canada, Volume 1 of the Research Studies, Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing. Toronto, Dundurn Press, 1993, pp. 293 and 551-2.
33. En Herbert E. Alexander y Rei Shiratori eds., Political Finance among the Democracies, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1994, p. 79.
34. Erhard Blankenburg, Rainer Standhammer y Heinz Steinert. 'Political Scandals and Corruption Issues in West Germany', en Political Corruption: A Handbook, Arnold J. Heidenheimer, Michael Johnston y Victor T. LeVine eds., New Brunswick, Transaction Books, 1989, pp.920-1.
35. Yves-Marie Doublet, L'argent et la politique en France, "Paris, Economica, 1997, p. 14.
36. Herbert E. Alexander y Rei Shiratori eds., Political Finance among the Democracies,"Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1994, pp. 162-3 y 196 ff
37. Ibid. p. 198
38. Ibid., p. 103
39. . Ibid., p. 100
40. . Gullan M. Gidlund, p. 110.
Ganancias de las Actividades de Negocios Propiedad de los Partidos
41. 'Structure and Function of Party-Owned Enterprises,' documento presentado en el Congreso Mundial de la Asociación Internacional de Ciencia Política, Washington D.C, 1988.
42. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, Washington D.C.: julio de 1995, LL95-4,95-1354, pp. 175-76, citado de 'Spanish Socialist's Tarnished Image, Agence France Presse, junio 2 de 1993 y Survey of Spain, The Financial Times, abril 2 de 1993.
43. Ibid, p. 148.
44. Citado en Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit.,, p. 105.
45. Khayyam Z. Paltiel, 'Campaign Finance: Contrasting Practices and Reforms,' en Democracy at the Polls: A Comparative Study of Competitive National Elections, op. cit., p. 147.
46. Pierre Avril, 'Regulation of Political Finance in France,' en Political Finance among the Democraciesop. cit.,, p. 88.
Financiamiento por Organizaciones de Base
47. Fuente: Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, 'Die Konservative Partei Grossbritanniens 1945-1980', en Christliche-demokratische und konservative Parteien in Westeuropa, HJ Veen ed., Paderborn, UTB Schoningh, 1983, p. 38.
Narcotráfico
48. Eduardo Posada-Carbó, 'Money and Elections in Colombia In The Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Forecast, 4th Quarter 1996, Latin America: Regional Overview, Londres, The Economist intelligence Unit Limited, 1996, p. 4 ss.
Otras Donaciones Ilegales
49. Herbert E. Alexander, Financing the 1972 Election, Lexington, Mass., D.C. Heath and Company, 1976, p.p. 489-93.
Límites a las Contribuciones
50. Fuentes: para Rusia, Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO), Election Law Compendium of Central and Eastern Europe, Kyiv, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), 1995. Para estados Unidos, Milton C. Cummings Jr. y David Wise, Democracy Under Pressure, Fort Worth, Texas, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, séptima edición, 1993 , p. 298. Para otros paises, Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, Washington D.C., op. cit., Tabla 5.
Regulaciones sobre Revelación
51. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p. 183.
52. Herbert E. Alexander, Financing Politics: Money, Elections, & Political Reform. Washington, D.C., Congressional Quarterly Press, cuarta edición, 1992, p.p. 161 y 164.
Revelación de Cantidades
53. Funding and Disclosure Handbook: Political Parties, Canberra, Australian Government Printing Service, 1996, p. 7
54. Canadian Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Reforming Electoral Democracy: Final Report, Ottawa, Communication Group Publishing, 1991, volumen 3, parrafo 401.
Revelación de Fuentes
55. Ibid , volumen 4, p. 67.
Acceso a la Información Revelada
56. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p.p. 80 y 93-94.
57. Georgias Papadopoulos, citado en Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p.p. 93-94.
Por Compañías
58. Fuentes: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., , Tabla 5, Werner Kaltefleiter y Karl-Heinz Nassmacher, 'The New German System of Public Subsidies to Political Parties,' en Political Parties in Democracy, op. cit., p. 393, y Ruth S. Jones, 'U.S. State-Level Campaign Finance Reform',en Political Finance among the Democracies, op. cit., p.61.
Por Sindicatos
59. Fuentes: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit, Tabla 5, Werner Kaltefleiter y Karl-Heinz Nassmacher, 'The New German System of Public Subsidies to Political Parties', en Political Parties in Democracy, op. cit., , p. 393, y Ruth S. Jones, 'U.S. State-Level Campaign Finance Reform', en Political Finance among the Democracies, op. cit., p.61.
Donaciones Extranjeras
60. Fuentes: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., Tabla 5 y Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO), Election Law Compendium of Central and Eastern Europe, op. cit., Kyiv. Para Albania, Argelia, Egipto, Jordania, Moldova, Rumania, Sudáfrica y Yemen: Yves-Marie Doublet, Le financement de la vie politique, Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, segunda edición, 1997, p. 24.
Por Contratos del Gobierno, etc
61. Fuente: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., Tabla 5 y p.p. 66, 96,195
Prohibiciones a cierto tipo de gastos
62. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980, op. cit., p.p. 15-16.
63. Citado en Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p. 151.
Campañas Electorales
64. H. Crouch, Malaysia's 1982 General Election, Singapur, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 1982, p. 38. Citado en Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p. 150.
65. Citado en Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p. 160.
66. W.T. Stanbury, Money in Politics: Financing Federal Parties and Candidates in Canada, Volume 1, Research Studies, Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Toronto, Dundurn Press, 1993, p.p. 384-5
67. ibid., p. 394.
68. Canadian Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Reforming Electoral Democracy: Final Report, op. cit., p. 152.
Códigos de Conducta para los Partidos Políticos
69. Draft Code of Conduct for Political Parties Contesting Democratic Elections, 28.04.97, Estocolmo, International IDEA.
Regulaciones sobre Publicidad
70. Fuentes: para Gran Bretaña: Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980, op. cit., p. 263. Para Belgica y Luxemburgo, European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research, Research and Documentation Papers, The Funding of Political Parties in European Community Member States, Luxemburgo, Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, segunda edición, 1991, pp. 8 y 31. Para otros paises: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p.p. 65, 138, 164 y188.
71. European Parliament, Directorate-General for Research, Research and Documentation Papers, The Funding of Political Parties in European Community Member States, op. cit., p. 8.
Distribución de Tiempos Públicos
72. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p.p. 52-3
73. Ibid., p. 194
Fórmulas para la Distribución de Tiempos
74. Fuente: Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries, op. cit., p. 58.
75. Ibid., p.p. 103-4.
76. Ibid., p.p. 159
77. Ibid., p.5
78. Ibid., p. 171
79. Ibid., p. 194
La Revelación de los Gastos de Campaña
80. Australian Electoral Commission, Funding and Disclosure Handbook: Political Parties, Canberra, Australian Government Printing Service, 1996, p. 15.
Por Partidos
81. Chief Electoral Officer, Guidelines Respecting Election Expenses of Registered Political Parties., Ottawa, Chief Electoral Officer, 1988, p.p. 3-4. Citado en W.T. Stanbury, Money in Politics: Financing Federal Parties and Candidates in Canada, op. cit., p. 385
Por Grupos de Interés
82. Australian Electoral Commission, Funding and Disclosure Handbook: Broadcasters and Publishers, Canberra: Australian Government Printing Service, 1996.
Límites de Gastos
83. Herbert E. Alexander y Monica Bauer. Financing the 1988 Election, Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press, 1991, p. 41.
84. Ibid, p.42.
Violaciones y Sanciones
85. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 80, 132 and 196.
86. Anthony Corrado, Thomas E. Mann, Daniel R. Ortiz, Trevor Potter and Frank J. Sorauf, editors, Campaign Finance Reform: A Sourcebook. Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1997: 29-30.
87. Canadian Royal Commission on Electoral Reform and Party Financing, Reforming Electoral Democracy: Final Report. Ottawa: Communication Group Publishing, 1991, volume 2: 217-8.
Tipos de Delitos
88. R.J. Clayton, Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, Croydon: Charles Knight Publishing, 1990, Supplement no. 5, section 20.15, p. 394.
89. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 168-9.
Multas y Encarcelamiento
90. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354: 35-6
Pérdida de Escaños Parlamentarios
91. H. F. Rawlings, Law and the Electoral Process, London: Sweet and Maxwell, 1988, p. 228.
92. Association of Central and Eastern European Election Officials (ACEEEO), Election Law Compendium of Central and Eastern Europe. Kyiv: International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES), 1995, p. 358.
93. R.J. Clayton, Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, Croydon: Charles Knight Publishing, 1990, supplement no. 5, Chapter 20.
Incumplimientos de las Regulaciones de Financiamiento Político
94. Federal Election Commission's compilation of Federal Election Campaign Laws, Washington, DC: November 1997.
95. Michael Pinto-Duschinsky, British Political Finance 1830-1980. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute, 1981, Chapter 9.
96. R.J. Clayton, Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, Croydon: Charles Knight Publishing, 1990, supplement no. 5, Chapter 15.
97. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354, pp. 56 and 80.
Suplantación de Personalidad
98. R.J. Clayton, Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, Croydon: Charles Knight Publishing, 1990, supplement no. 5, 20.03.
99. . Mauritius Laws 1996, volume 4, pp. 606.
100. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354, pp. 168.
Intimidación de Electores
101. R.J. Clayton, Parker's Conduct of Parliamentary Elections, Croydon: Charles Knight Publishing, 1990, supplement no. 5, 18.34 - 18.36.
102. Mauritius Laws 1996, volume 4, pp. 605-6.
103. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354, pp. 168.
Soborno
104. Library of Congress, Law Library, Report for Congress: Campaign Financing of National Elections in Selected Foreign Countries. Washington, DC: July 1995, LL95-4, 95-1354, pp. 80, 89,144 and 168. Mauritius Laws 1996, volume 4, p. 606.
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