Election Integrity

Topic IndexElection Integrity Endnotes

1. Elklit, Jorgen and Palle Svensson, What Makes Elections Free and Fair? Journal of Democracy, Vol. 8.3, p 35

2. Elklit, Jorgen, Opcit, p 37

3. Madison, Jay: Federalist Paper No. 51, in The Federalist Papers, Hamilton, Alexander, James Madison, John Jay. New American Library, 1961, New York p 322

4. Transparency International, The Bribe-Payers Survey 1999. http://www.transparency.org

5. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, May 8 - 10, 1996, p 1

6. Neou Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2 1999 p 162.

Administrative Considerations

7. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything You Need to Know about Voting under MMP, GP Publications, Wellington. 1996, p 12.

8. Harris, Paul, Electoral Commission of New Zealand. Comments during review of text, August 17, 2000.

9. Harris, Paul, New Zealand Elections Commission, E-mail 1/10/00.

10. Maley, Michael, Australian Elections Commission, 12/24/99 E-mail.

11. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico, 1999, p 2.

Cost Considerations

12. Harris, Paul, Chief Executive of the New Zealand Electoral Commission. Dr. Harris's comments on the cost and the need for a judgement between cost and the benefit to integrity have been incorporated throughout this text.

13. Harris, Paul. Ibid

14. Maabong, Regaldo, New Technologies of Modernization in Electoral Administration. The Philippine Experience published at http://www.ifes.org/AsiaAssociSite/a_asia_ca/s_maam.htm

15. Schedler, Andrea, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico. , 1999 p 24

16. Barkan, Joel, and Njuguma Ng'ehe, Kenya Tries Again, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2, 1998, p 43

17. Klitgaard, Robert. Controlling Corruption. UN Chronicle, Spring 1998, v35, il, p 90.

Social and Political Context

18. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offenses, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, May 8-10, 1996, p 8

19. Indian Elections Commission. http://www.eci.gov.in/handbook/candidates/cap10/cap10_2.htm

20. Philippine Elections Commission. http://www.comelec.glv.ph'

21. Public Campaign. http://www.publiccampaign.org/totals/html'

22. Transparency International. http://www.transparency.org

23. For more information on the link between the amount of money spent and winning an election see Common Cause (http://www.commoncause.org) and 'eix_i050'

24. Transparency International. Bribe Payers Survey 1999 http://www.transparency.org

25. Dahl, Bob. Diminishing the Influence of 'Money Politics.' Elections Today, Vol 8, No 3 9/99 p 12

26. Maamong, Regaldo. New Technologies in Modernization of Electoral Administration. The Philippine Experience. 1997 http://www.ifes.org/AsiaAssocSite/a_asia_ca/s_maam.htm

Special Considerations in Countries in Transition

27. Year in Review 1996, World Affairs. Bangladesh. Encyclopedia Britannica

28. Neou Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2 1999 p 155

29. For more information see Postconflict Elections, Democratization and International Assistance, Krishna Kumar, ed, Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, 1998.

30. Kumar, Krishna, International Assistance for Post Conflict Elections, 1999 draft p 10.

Historical Review

31. Etzioni-Halevy, Eva, Political Manipulation and Administrative Power (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1979), p 20.

32. Sills, David L., ed., International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (London: Crowell Collier and Macmillan, Inc., 1968), p 7.

33. Ibid., p 9

34. 'Kuwait Kills New Bill to Give Women the Vote,' Women's International Network News vols.26, 1. (2000), Available: EBSCOhost MasterFILE Premier; ADDRESS: http://www.ebsco.com/. (August 10, 2000).

35. Women's Suffrage, Grolier Online (1996) Available, ADDRESS: http://gi.grolier.com/presidents/ea/side/wsffrg.html (August 15, 2000).

36. Nagel, Stuart S., ed., Encyclopedia of Policy Studies (New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1994), p 343.

37. Huntington, Samuel P., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman, London: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p 7.

38. Ibid. p. 181.

39. Sills, David L. Opcit, p 10.

40. Etzioni-Halevy, Eva, Opcit, p 23.

41. Ibid.

42. Helmore, L. M, Corrupt and Illegal Practices (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1967), p 27.

43. Bott, Alexander J, Handbook of United States Election Laws and Practices: Political Rights (Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1990), p 200.

44. 'Tweed, William Marcy,' Encyclopedia Britannica (1999), Available: britannica.com; ADDRESS: http://www.britannica.com/. (July 14, 2000).

45. Rubin, Alissa J, 'History of Changes in Campaign Law,' Congressional Quarterly Weekly Report, vols. 55, 14 (1997), Available: EBSCOhost MasterFILE Premier; ADDRESS: http://www.ebsco.com/. (July 17, 2000).

46. The FEC and the Federal Campaign Finance Law, Federal Election Commission (1996.) Available, ADDRESS: http://www.fec.gov/pages/fecfeca.htm#Enforcing the Law (August 10, 2000)

47. Nagel, Stuart S. Opcit, p 349.

48. Ibid. p 350.

49. Dundas, Carl W., Transparency in Organizing Elections, Round Table Iss. 329 (1994.) Available: EBSCOhost MasterFILE Premier; ADDRESS: http://www.ebsco.com/. (August 10, 2000).

50. Huntington, Samuel P, Opcit, p. 184.

51. May 29, 2000, 'Peru's Fujimori Wins Election That U.S. Calls Invalid,' CNN.com, Available, ADDRESS: http://www.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/05/29/peru.elections.03/index.html

52. June 5, 2000, 'OAS Consideres Recognizing, Investigating Peru Vote,' CNN.com, Available, ADDRESS: http://www.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/americas/06/05/Peru.oas/index.html

53. 'Intimidation,' Economist vols. 355, 8173 (2000) Available: EBSCOhost MasterFILE Premier; ADDRESS: http://www.ebsco.com/. (August 11, 2000).

54. Decolonization: History, The United Nations Department of Public Information (2000). Available, ADDRESS: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpi/decolonization/history.htm (July 7, 2000)

55. Ibid.

56. Huntington, Samuel P., Opcit, p 26.

57. Context and Objectives of UN Electoral Assistance, The United Nations Department of Political Affairs, Electoral Assistance Division (2000). Available, ADDRESS: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpa/ead/website5.htm (July 7, 2000)

58. Ibid.

59. OAS History at a Glance, Organization of American States (2000), Available, ADDRESS: http://www.oas.org/. (July 7, 2000)

60. Lipset, Seymour M., ed., The Encyclopedia of Democracy (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Inc., 1995), pp. 408

61. 1948-1998: 50 Years of United Nations Peacekeeping Operations: Backgrounder, The United Nations Department of Public Information (1998). Available, ADDRESS: http://www.un.org/Depts/dpko (July 7, 2000)

Policy

62. About the FPPC, http://www.fppc.ca.gov/facts.htm

Principles

63. Association of African Election Authorities, Charter, Article 2, http://www.ifes.org/afrassoc/charter.htm

Ethical Behaviour

64. South Africa, A Code of Conduct for Persons of Responsibility. Reprinted in http://www.transparency.org

Fair Process

65. Elections Commission of India. http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/about_eci/index.htm

66. Elections Canada. http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90600_e.html

67. Schedler, Andreas, Civil Society under Survey, Trust in Elections, 1999, p 7

68. Transparency International, Bribe Payers Survey, 1999 http://www.transparency.org

69. IDEA, Code of Conduct for the Ethical and Professional Administration of Elections, p 2, http://www.int-idea.se/publications

70. Sena Poll, published in the Nouveliste, 2/3/00, p 1

Accountability

71. Comptroller General of the U.S., Government Auditing Standards, Chapter 1, p 2 (GAO/ocg94-9). http://www.ignet.gov/ignet/internal/manual/yellow/gas1.html

Monitored and Enforced

72. Transparency International. Bribe-Payers Survey,1999 http://www.transparency.org

Legal Framework

73. Transparency International Transparency and Political Parties in Argentina. http://www.transparency.org

74. Maambon, Regaldo, New Technologies of Modernization in Electoral Administration. http://www.ifes.org/AsiaAssocSite/a_asia_ea/s_maam.htm 1997'

75. Pastor, Robert, Mediating Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.1, p 160

76. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico , unpublished manuscript, 1999, p 19

77. Ibid

Legislation

78. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offenses, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, May 8 -10, p 1

79. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything you need to know about voting under MMP, Wellington, Undated, p 14.

80. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offenses, Third Annual Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, May 8-10, 1996, p 10

81. Plano, Jack, and Milton Greenburg, The American Political Dictionary, 8th Edition, Holt, Reinhart and Winston, Inc. 1989. P 108.

Regulations

82. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Democracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico, 1999, p 2.

83. Office of the President, Official Bulletin, No 28,590, 1st Section, 2/20/97 Argentina

Codes of Conduct/Ethics

84. Wyoming. Ethics and Disclosure Act, http://legisweb.state.wy.us/titles/99titles/title9/t9chapt13.htm

85. Ibid

86. Elections Commission of India. http://www.eci.gov.infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

Institutional Framework

87. Begin, Micheline. Comments during review.

88. Cowen, Micahel and Liisa Laakso, Election Studies in Africa, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 35.4, 1997 p 736.

89. Ibid.

Electoral Management Body

90. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2, 1999, p 152

91. Harris, Paul. Electoral Commission of New Zealand. Information provided during review of the text.

Oversight Agencies

92. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, p 4.

93. Israel, The Internal Audit Law reprinted at http://www.transparency.org

94. Plano, Jack and Milton Greenburg, The American Political Dictionary, 8th Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. 1989, p 107

95. Seattle Ethics & Elections Commission. http://www.ci.seattle.wa.us/ethics/ethics.htm

Independent Observers

96. IDEA. http://www.int-idea.se/publications/conduct/obs/part.htm

Media

97. Society of Professional Journalists. Code of Ethics. http://spj.org/ethics/code.htm

98. Associated Press. Code of Ethics http://www.asne.org/ideas/codes/apme.htm

99. Society of Professional Journalists. Code of Ethics http://spj.org/ethics/code.htm

100. Gannette Newpaper Division, Principles of Ethical Conduct http://www.asne.org/ideas/codes/gannettcompany.htm

Integrity in Election Administration

101. Schedler, Andreas, The Path-Dependent Logic of Electoral Reforms in Mexico, 2/99, p 7

102. Ibid

103. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, 10.2, 1999, p 154

Election Management

104. Noel, Theo, Advisor in the 1999 Indonesian elections.

105. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2, 1999, p 155

106. South African Electoral Law. http://www.elections.org.za/legis/polices.html

107. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Opcit

108. Schedler, Andreas, The Path-Dependent Logic of Electoral Reforms in Mexico, 2/99, p 20

109. India, Elections Commission. http://www.eci.gov/infoeci/about_eci/index.htm

110. Independent Commission Against Corruption, New South Wales, Australia. http://www.icac.nsw.gov.au/about/about1_1.htm

111. Schedler, Andreas, The Path-Dependent Logic of Electoral Reforms in Mexico, 2/99, p 7

Budget

112. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/about_eci/index.htm

113. Noel, Theo. Information provided during review of text.

Staffing and Recruitment

114. Saladana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offenses 1996

115. Transparency International,Bribe-Payers Survey, 1999,http://www.transparency.org

116. Noel, Theo. Comments during review of text.

117. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Procurement

118. Transparency International, Bribe-Payers Survey, 1999 http://www.transparency.org

Voting System

119. Harris, Paul, New Zealand Elections Commission, e-mail 3/00

120. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything You Need to Know about Voting Under MMP. GP Publications, Wellington, 1996, p 20.

121. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

122. Barkan, Joel and Njuguna Ng'ethe, Kenya Tries Again Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2, 1998, p 32

123. Harris, Paul, Opcit.

124. Ibid

125. Folketing, Parliamentary Elections and Administration in Denmark, http://www.ft.dk/baggrund

Districting

126. Barkan, Joel and Njuguma Ng'ethe, Kenya Tries Again, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2, 1998 p 35

127. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything You Need to Know About MMP, GP Publications, Wellington, 1996, p 48

128. Folketing, Parliamentary Elections and Electoral Administration in Denmark. http://www.ft.kd/baggrund

Calendar

129. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

130. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2 1999, p 156

131. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance, 1999 p 12

132. Schedler, Andreas. Opcit, p 14

133. Elections Commission of India, Opcit.

Voter Registration

134. Saranita, Karen. Too Close to Call. National Review, Dec 23, 1996 v48, n24, p42.

135. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec92350_e.html

136. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90780_e.hmtl

137. Electoral Enrolment Centre, New Zealand Post Limited, Everything You Need to Know about Enrolling to Vote. Wellington, p 4

138. Throup David, Elections and Political Legitimacy in Kenya, Africa 63 (3) 1993 p 389.

139. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90785_e.html

140. 7 Electoral Enrolment Centre, Opcit.

141. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90780_e.html

142. Folketing, Parliamentary Elections and Administration in Denmark. http://www.ft.dk/baggrund

Registration by Mail

143. Secretary of State, Arkansas. Capital Update http://www.sosweb.state.ar.us/update.html

144. Federal Elections Commission, Report to Congress, pg 1, http://www.fec.gov

145. Federal Elections Commission, Opcit, p 2

146. Ibid.

Avoiding Voter Registration Fraud

147. Throup, David. Elections and Political Legitimacy in Kenya, Africa 63 (3) 1993, pg 392

148. San Francisco Chronicle.

149. Schedler, Andreas. Distrust Breeds Democracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico, 1999, p 10

150. Boneo, Horacio. Electoral Observation, Preliminary Ideas for a Book, 12/99, p 8

151. Electoral Enrolment Centre, New Zealand Post Limited, Everything You Need To Know About Enrolling To Vote, Wellington, p 6

Party Registration

152. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec92530_e.html

153. Ibid

154. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Guide to the Registration of Political Parties and Party Logos, Wellington, 1997, p 2.

155. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, op cit, p 5

156. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, op cit, p 7

157. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

Candidate Registration

158. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen

159. Elections Commission of India. http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

160. Ibid.

161. Elections Commission of Ireland, http://www.environ.ie/elections/president.html

162. Elections Commission of South Africa. http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies/html

163. Suriname Electoral Law of 1987, Article 68: Administrative Appeal. Reprinted in http://www.georgetown.edu/pdba/electoral/sur/suriname

Accrediting Observers

164. Elections Commission of South Africa. http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Electoral Campaign

165. Folketinget, Parliamentary Elections and Elections Administration in Denmark. Chapter 2, Section 3.5, http://www.ft.dk/bagrund.

166. Article 19, Guidelines for Election Broadcasting in Transitional Democracies, 1994, http://www.article 19.org/pubs/broadcas.htm

167. Ibid

168. Folketinget, Opcit.

169. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

170. Elections Commission of Ireland, http://www.environ.ie/electoins/president.html

171. Alliance for Better Campaigns, http://www.bettercampaigns.org/Mission/htm

172. COMELEC, http://www.comelec.gov.ph/htm1/defalut_prohibited_acts.htm

173. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offences, 1996, p 4

174. Sanderson, John M. and Michael Malley, Elections and Liberal Democracy in Cambodia, Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol 42, Issue 3, 1998, p. 245

175. Filkins, Dexter and Waruna Karunatilake, Sri Lankan President Hurt in Suicide Bomb Attack, Los Angeles Times, Dec 1999, p 1.

176. Sanderson, John M. and Michael Malley, Op Cit.

Access to Media

177. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Broadcasting at Parliamentary Elections. A Guide of Political Parties, Candidates and Broadcasters, Wellington, 1999, p 18

178. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci/gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

179. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Op cit, p 15

180. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything You Need to Know About Voting Under MMP, New Zealand's Electoral System, Wellington, 1996, p 27

181. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Op Cit, p 28

182. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Broadcasting at Parliamentary Elections, Opcit.

Voter Education

183. Civitas, http://www.civnet.org/resources/teach/basic/civitas/exe.htm

184. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

185. Neou Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2, 1999, p 157

Voting

186. Federal Elections Commission, Report to Congress, p 1. http://www.fec.gov

187. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything You Need to Know About Voting Under MMP, The Electoral System of New Zealand. GP Publications, Wellington, 1996. p 31

188. Elections Canada. http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec92350_e.html

189. Elections Commission of India. http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

Access

190. Elections Commission of Ireland, http://www.environ.ie/elections/president.html

191. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90505_e.html

192. Elections Commission of Ireland, http://www.environ/ie/elections/voterdis.html

193. Ibid.

194. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud. Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems. IFES 1996, p 7.

Security

195. Neou Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, vol 10.2 1999, p 158

196. Comelec, http://www.comelec.glv.ph/html/default_prohibited+acts.htm.

197. Asian Monitoring Conference. Found at http://www.ndi.org

198. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement

199. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Core Values, http://www.fbi.gov/values.htm.

Voting Mechanisms

200. Federal Elections Commission. http://www.fec.gov

Absentee Voting

201. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90540_e.html

202. Elections Commission of Ireland. http://www.environ.ie/elections/president.html

Discrimination, Intimidation and Fraud

203. U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, http://www.doj.gov/ert/voting/clarify3.htm

204. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offences, 1996, p 9

205. Throup, David, Elections and Political Legitimacy in Kenya, Africa, Vol 63.3, 1993, p 389

Integrity Measures to Protect Against Fraud

206. Jorgen Elklit & Palle Svensson, What Makes Elections Free and Fair, Journal of Democracy, Vol 8.3, 1997, p 38

207. Elections Commission of Ireland. http://www.environ.ie/elections/president.html

208. Tanjuatco, Ding. Cheating in Elections, 2000, p 3

209. Schedler, Andreas. Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico, 1999, p 11.

210. Tanjuatco, Ding. Opcit

211. Elections Commission of Ireland. Opcit

212. Elections Commisson of South Africa, http://www..elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

213. California Secretary of State, News Release, 1/19/97. Require Identification at the Poll. http://www.ss.ca.gov/executive/press_releases/election_reform_legislation/97_10htm

214. Tanjuatco, Ding, Opcit, p 1

215. Arkansas Secretary of State, http://www.sosweb.state.ar.us/update.html

216. Wall Street Journal, Review and Outlook, 11/2/99

217. Elections Commission of South Africa, Opcit.

Counting

218. Election Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

219. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Everything you Need to Know About Voting Under MMP, Wellington, 1996, p 35

220. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico,1999, p 11

221. Folketinget, Parliamentary Elections and Election Administration in Denmark. http://www.ft.dk/baggrund

222. Hawaii. http://www.hawaii.gov/elections/rev98.htm

Complaints and Appeals

223. State of Hawaii, http://www.hawaii.gov/elections/rev98.htm

224. Neou Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2, 1999, p 161

225. Folketinget, Parliamentary Elections and Election Administration in Denmark. http://www.ft.dk/baggrund, Section 5.3: The Approval Procedures

226. Election Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

227. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec90503_e.html

228. Elections Commission of Ireland, http://www.environ.ie/elections/president.html

229. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/about_eci/index.htm

Official Results

230. Schedler, Andreas, Distrust Breeds Bureaucracy, The Formal Regulation of Electoral Governance in Mexico, 1999, p 3

231. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Political Parties and Candidates

232. Secretary of State, State of California, http://www.ss.ca.gov/prd/finance98_general_final/98gencandmainpage.htm

Codes of Conduct for Political Parties

233. CORE, 1995, Election Administration Manual, 1999, p 27

234. CORE, Electoral Code of Conduct for Political Parties, Election Administration Manual, Chapter 5, 1995, p 29

Campaign Financing

235. Alliance for Better Campaigns, http://www.publiccampaign.org/totals.html

236. For more information on the link between the amount of money spent and the winning elections, see Campaign Receipts, Expenditures, 1998 California Election.

237. Pinto-Duschinsky, Michael, Effective Reform in Campaign Finance, Elections Today. IFES. Vol 8, No 2, p 4

238. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/about/descriptions.htm

239. Federal Elections Commission, http://www.fec.gov/1996/about.htm

240. Ibid.

241. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Guide to Election Expenses for Registered Political Party, Elections 1999, p 9

242. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Op Cit, p 2.

243. Mishra, Dr. Birenda Prasad, Campaign Finance and Disclosure in Nepal. http://www.ifes.org/asiaassocsite/a_asia_ca/s)mishra.thm 1997

244. Elections Canada, http://www.elections.ca/gen_info/backgrounders/ec92520_e.html

245. Federal Elections Commission, http://www.fec.gov/pages/foreign.htm

246. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/laundromat/sofmoney.html

247. Ibid.

248. Federal Elections Commission, http://www.fec.gov/pages/fecfeca.htm

249. Electoral Commission of New Zealand, Op Cit, p 3

250. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/publications/july99/071599.htm

251. Court of Appeals of New Zealand, Judgement of the Court between the Electoral Commission and Priscilla Tate, delivered by Thomas J., June 11, 1999, p 16

252. Court of Appeals of New Zealand, Op Cit, p 19.

253. Folketinget, Parliamentary Elections and Election Administration in Denmark, http://www.ft.dk/baggrund

254. Transparency International, Transparency and Political Parties in Argentina http://www.transparency.org

255. Pinto-Duschinsky, Michael, Opcit, p 5

256. Torquato, Jardim, Equality of Opportunities Essential, IFES Today, Vol 8, No 3. 9/99, p 9

257. Kinglsey, Jean-Pierre, Campaign Finance Reform an Ongoing Task, Elections Today, IFES,, Vol 8, No 3, 9/99 p 15

Illegal Campaign Expenditures

258. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, 1996, p 6

259. Saldana, Augustin Ricoy, Electoral Offences, p 8

260. Transparency International, 1999 Bribe-Payers Survey, http://www.transparency.org

Political Party Monitors

261. IDEA, Lessons Learnt: International Election Observation, Stockholm, 1995, p 18

262. Election Commission of South Africa, Election Administration Manual, p 28

NonGovernmental Organizations

263. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/about/fact.htm

264. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/publications/aug99/083099_talk.htm

265. Common Cause, http://www.commoncause.org/laundromat

266. Democracy Net, http://www.dnet.org/2.shtml

267. Alliance for Better Campaigns, http://www.betercampaigns.org/mission.htm

268. Ibid.

Voters

269. CIVITAS, A Framework for Civic Education, http://www.civced.org/wtp_ms28_sb.thml

270. CIVITAS, http://www.civnet.org/resources/teach/basic/civitas/exe.htm

271. Ibid

272. Ibid

273. Elections Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Monitors of Election Integrity

274. Elections Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.in/infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

275. Boneo, Horacio, Electoral Observation: Preliminary Ideas for a Book, 1999, p 7

Official Oversight

276. Comptroller General of the United States, Government Auditing Standards, Reporting, Appendix 5, Inspector General Act of 1978, Section 7 http://www.ignet.gov/ignet/internal/manual/igact/iga7.txt

277. Independent Commission Against Corruption, New South Wales, Australia http://www.icac.nsw.gov.au/about/about1_4.htm

Integrity Issues in Oversight

278. Comptroller General of the United States, Government Auditing Standards, Types of Government Audits, Chapter 3, http://www.ignet.gov/ignet/internal/manual/yellow/gas3.html

279. Commissioner of Canada's Elections, Special Investigators Manual, 1997, p 4

280. Israel, The Internal Audit Law, 1992. Reprinted at http://www.transparency.org

281. Independent Commission Against Corruption, New South Wales, Australia, http://www.icac.nsw.gov.au/about/about1_2.thm

282. Comptroller General of the United States, Opcit

Media

283. Voting Integrity Project, http://www.voting-integrity.org/states/fl/fl.htm.

284. Barkan, Joel, and Njuguma Ng'ethe, Kenya Tries Again, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2 1998, p 39

285. Committee to Protect Journalists, Attacks on the Press, 1999, http://www.cpj.org

286. OSCE, PC Journal No. 137, Agenda Item 1. PC.CEC No 193, 11/5/97 http://www.ocse.org/inst/fom/mandate.htm

287. Committee to Project Journalists, June 21, 2000 http://www.cpj.org

288. Election Commission of India, http://www.eci.gov.infoeci/elec_sys/index.htm

289. Sanderson, John M. and Michael Maley, Elections and Liberal Democracy in Cambodia, Australian Journal of International Affairs, Vol 52.3, 11/98

Media Code of Ethics

290. Society of Professional Journalists. Code of Ethics http://spj.org/ethics.code.htm

291. Gannet Newspaper Division, Principles of Ethical Conduct for Editors http://www.asne.org/ideas/codes/gannettcompany.htm

Integrity in Reporting

292. Hong Kong Journalist Association, Media Ethics and the Way Forward. http://www.freeway.org.hk/khja/publications/survey/221198.htm

293. Carothers, Thomas, The Observers Observed, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2 1997, p 29

294. Ibid.

295. Fauvet, Paul, Mozambique: Elections and Foreign Media, PanAfrican News Agency, 2/3/00 http://www.africanews.org

National Election Observation

296. NANFREL, http://www.kababaihan.org/wewatch98/fraud/fraud-tips.htm

297. Voting Integrity Project, http://www.voting-integrity.org/who_fi.htm

298. Ibid

299. Barkan, Joel, Njuguma Ng'ethe, Kenya Tries Again, Journal of Democracy, Vol 9.2, 1998

300. IDEA, Lessons Learnt, International Election Observation, Stockholm, 1995, p 9

301. Carothers, Thomas, The Observers Observed, Journal of Democracy, Vol 8.3 1997, p 25

302. National Democratic Institute, Asian Monitoring Network Conference, October 1998, http://www.ndi.org

303. Ibid

304. Ibid

Integrity in Domestic Observation

305. IDEA, Code of Code of Conduct for the Ethical and Professional Observation of Elections, http://www.int-idea.se/publications/conduct/obs/part2.htm

International Election Observation

306. Schramm, Mary Lou, IFES, e-mail dated 1/00

307. IDEA, Lessons Learnt: International Election Observation, Stockholm, 1995, p 5

308. Toth, Dr. Zoltan, The History and Activity of the Association of Central and Eastern Election Officials, 1997, http://www.ifes.org/AsiaAssocSite/a_asia_ea/s_toth.htm

309. Carothers, Thomas, The Observers Observed, Journal of Democracy, Vol 8.3 1997, p 19

310. Carothers, Thomas, Opcit, p 20

311. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2 1999, p 160

Integrity in International Observation

312. IDEA, Lessons Learnt: International Election Observation, 1995 Stockholm, p 11

313. OHDIR, Press Release http://www.osce.org/c/docs/presrel/1999-053-odihr.htm. 11/22/99

314. IDEA, op.cit, p 16

315. IDEA, op.cit, p 11

316. IDEA, op.cit, p 10

317. IDEA, op.cit, p 16

318. Richardson, Elliot, quoted in Mediating Elections, by Robert Pastor, Journal of Democracy 9.1, 1998, p 156

319. IDEA, Opcit, p 20

320. Ibid

321. Carey, Henry, Electoral Observation and Democratization in Haiti, Middlebrook, Kevin, ed. Electoral Observation and Democratization in Latin America, San Diego Center for U.S. Mexican Studies, 1998, p 163

Standards to Judge Elections

322. IDEA, Lessons Learnt: International Election Observation, Stockholm, 1995, p 14

323. Elklit, Jorgen and Palle Svensson, What Makes Elections Free and Fair, Journal of Democracy, Vol 8.3, 1997, p 39

324. 4. Cowen, Michael and Liisa Laakso, Election Studies in Africa Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol 35.4, 1997, p 736

325. 5. Carey, Henry, Electoral Observation and Democratization in Haiti, Middlebrook, Kevin, ed. Electoral Observation and Democratization in Latin America, San Diego Center for U.S. Mexican Studies, 1998, p 164

Code of Conduct for International Observers

326. IDEA, Code of Conduct for the Ethical and Professional Observation of Elections, http://www.int-idea.se/publications/conduct/obs/part2.htm

Enforcement of Election Integrity

327. Klitgaard, Robert. Combating Corruption, UN Chronicles, Spring 1998, v35, il, p 90

328. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, 1996, p 1

Investigations

329. Voting Integrity Project, http://www.voting-integrity.org/who_fi.htm

330. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 20, p 2

331. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES. May 8-10, 1996, p 9

332. Ibid

Duties and Ethical Conduct of Investigators

333. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 10, p 1

334. Ibid.

335. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 5, p 3

Making a Complaint

336. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 2, p 2

337. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 4

Decision to Investigate

338. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 4, p 3

339. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES. May 8-10, 1996, p 8

340. Ibid.

341. Elections Canada, Opcit. Chapter 4, p 4

Interviews

342. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 3, p 5

343. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 1

344. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 2

345. Ibid.

346. Ibid.

347. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 3

348. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 5

349. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 10, p 13

350. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, 1996, p 9

Search Warrants

351. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 2, p 4

352. Ibid.

Investigator's Analysis

353. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 9, p 2

354. Elections Canada, Opcit. Chapter 9, p 5

355. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 13, p 2

356. Elections Canada, Opcit. Chapter 9, p 4

357. Elections Canada, Opcit. Chapter 9, p 5

358. Elections Canada, Opcit, Chapter 17, p 2

Decision to Prosecute

359. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 14, p 4

360. Donsanto, Craig, The Federal Crime of Election Fraud, Third Annual Trilateral Conference on Electoral Systems, IFES, May 8-10, 1996. p 1

361. Ibid.

362. Federal Elections Commission (U.S.), Filing a Complaint. http://www.fec.gov/pages/complain.htm

Audits

363. Note: Discussion is based on the U.S. Government Auditing Standards, Chapter 1, p 2

364. Comptroller General of the United States, Auditing Standards, Chapter 1. ww.ignet.gov/ignet/internal/manual/yellow/gas1.html.

365. 2. Comtroller General of the United States, Opcit, Chapter 2

366. 3. Israel, The Internal Audit Law, 1992, reprinted at http://www.transparency.org

Prosecution and Judicial Proceedings

367. International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 9 (1), http://www.amnesty.org

368. Amnesty International, Fair Trial Manual, Article 6.2

369. Elections Canada, Special Investigators Manual, Chapter 16, p 5

Rights of the Accused

370. Amnesty International, Fair Trial Manual http://www.amenesty.org

371. Amnesty International, Opcit, Article 4.1

Civil Litigation

372. Election Commission of South Africa, http://www.elections.org.za/legis/policies.html

Monitoring of Enforcement

373. The Center for the Independence of Judges and Lawyers, Final Policy Framework for Prevent and Eliminating Corruption and Ensuring the Impartiality of the Judicial System. http://www.icj.org/cijl/alerts/fpf.htm

Investigating in Difficult Circumstances

374. Neou, Kassie and Jeffrey C. Gallup, Conducting Cambodia's Elections, Journal of Democracy, Vol 10.2, 1999, p 157

375. Maley, Michael. Australian Elections Commission, 12/24/99 e-mail

376. Transparency International, Bribe Payers Survey, 1999, http://www.transparency.org

377. The Center for the Independence of Judges and Lawyers. Final Policy Framework for Preventing and Eliminating Corruption and Ensuring the Impartiality of the Judicial System. March 1999, http://www.icj.org/cijl/alerts/fpf.htm

378. Klitgaard, Robert, Corruption Is A Crime Of Calculation, Not Passion, UN Chronicle, Spring 1998, v35, ii, p 90

Where Fairness Promises Little Freedom

379. See Zakaria, Fareed. 'The Rise of Illiberal Democracy,' Foreign Affairs, vol.76, number 6 for a discussion of the Western concept of liberal democracy.

380. The State of Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina ('the Federation'), and Republika Srpska (RS). Only Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims) and Croats are considered constituent peoples of the Federation, while only Serbs are considered a constituent people of the RS. Moreover, the Constitution assigns higher office to Bosniaks and Croats in the Federation and Serbs in the RS, thereby preventing minority nationalities from contesting ethnically designated seats.

381. General elections for the Bosnian and Republika Srpska (RS) Presidencies, for the Bosnian, Federation, RS parliaments, and for Federation cantonal legislatures were held in 1996 and 1998. Municipal elections -- postponed twice in 1996 due to widespread allegations of electoral fraud -- took place in September 1997 and again in April 2000.

382. The U.S. Agency for International Development's 'Strategic Assessment Framework for Democracy and Governance Programming' (March, 1998) cites consensus, rule of law, competition, inclusion and good governance as five factors that inform any given country's path towards democratic consolidation.

383. The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Annex 3, Articles 1-2.

384. Document of the Second Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimension of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Copenhagen, 1990.

385. Statement to the OSCE Senior Council, Ambassador Robert H. Frowick, Head of OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina,' 22 March 1996.

386. Statement on Certification of the 14 September 1996 Elections, Ambassador Robert H. Frowick, Head of OSCE Mission to Bosnia and Herzegovina, 29 September 1996.

387. Certification of the Elections in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Declaration of the Chairman-in-Office, Federal Councilor Flavio Cotti at the Permanent Council of the OSCE, 25 June 1996.

388. Pomfret, John. 'Test for Fragile Bosnia: September 14 Elections Face Daunting Hurdles' International Herald Tribune, 9 September 1996.

389. The General Framework Agreement for Peace in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Annex 3, Article III.

390. A Bosnian Muslim.

391. A Bosnian who does not identify him/herself as a member of the Bosniak, Croat or Serb populations

392. Provisional Election Commission Rules and Regulations, Elections 8 April 2000.Articles 3.5-3.7.

393. Ibid., Article 12.35.

394. Ibid., Article 13.25.

395. The four nation-wide elections as well as extraordinary elections for the RS National Assembly in November 1997.

396. Election Appeals Sub-Commission Fact Sheet, OSCE 2000. Although many observers have welcomed the EASC's sweeping powers, others have suggested that its operations may not conform to international human rights standards. Particularly questionable are the closed nature of the proceedings and the absence of an appellate procedure.

397. 1997 Rules and Regulations of the Provisional Election Commission, 1 August 1997

398. Decision of the High Representative, Independent Media Commission, 11 June 1998.

399. Independent Media Commission Guidelines for Equitable Access to Media in Election Periods. Adopted 21 October 1999 and amended 10 February 2000. Article 4.

400. Ibid., Article 5.

401. Tuzla, Banja Luka, Sarajevo and Mostar.

402. Provisional Election Commission Fact Sheet, OSCE 2000.

403. Provisional Election Commission Rules and Regulations, Elections 8 April 2000. Articles 7.35-7.40

404. Ibid., Articles 7.10, 7.11, and 7.16.

405. Draft Election Law Fact Sheet, OSCE 2000.

406. OHR Press Release, 28 April 2000.

407. On 9 November 1999, the High Representative and OSCE Head of Mission announced the removal from office of 22 public officials. Those concerned were banned from contesting the April 2000 municipal elections or from accepting executive appointments thereafter. Joint OHR/OSCE Press Release, Sarajevo, 29 November 1999.

408. Elections in Bosnia and Herzegovina 14 September 1996: Second Statement of the Coordinator for International Monitoring.

Domestic Monitoring and Election Integrity

409. Dahl, Robert, Indonesian Election Law Assessment, International Foundation for Electoral Systems, 1999 (http://www.ifes.org)

410. Ibid.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

411. National Election Committee, Public Information Bureau, 5.4 million Cambodians Register to Vote, press release 19 June 1998; National Election Committee, 93.74% of Registered Voters Turned Out on Polling Day, press release, 13 August 1998

412. National Election Committee, NEC Strikes 1,348 Names From Voting List, press release, 14 July 1998

413. Sam Rainsy Party, SRP Delivers Thick Stack of Complaints to Constitutional Council, press release, 13 August, 1998

414. This idea was suggested to the author by Patrick Merloe of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs (USA).

New Zealand's Change to MMP

415. The opinions in this paper are those of the author and are not necessarily those of the Electoral Commission. Address for correspondence: Dr Paul Harris, Chief Executive, Electoral Commission, PO Box 3050, Wellington, New Zealand; tel. +64 4 474 0670; fax +64 4 474 0674; email . Further information about New Zealand's electoral system is available from the electoral website .

416. New Zealand is a unitary state which has had a unicameral legislature since the abolition of the appointed Legislative Council in 1950. FPP is a voting system in which the candidate in each geographical electorate who wins the most votes is elected to represent that electorate, even if he or she wins less than 50% of the votes cast. FPP is sometimes referred to as 'simple plurality'. Under the MMP voting system used in New Zealand, each voter has two votes, a Party Vote for the party the voter most wants to be represented in Parliament, and an Electorate Vote for a candidate to be the Member of Parliament for the electorate for which the voter is enrolled. Each party's share of all 120 seats in Parliament is decided by its share of all the Party Votes, provided the party crosses the threshold by winning at least 5% of all the Party Votes or at least one electorate seat. Qualifying parties then receive enough list seats to add to their electorate seats to reach the total number of seats to which they are entitled based on their Party Votes. For a detailed history of New Zealand's change to MMP, see Keith Jackson and Alan McRobie, New Zealand Adopts Proportional Representation. Accident? Design? Evolution? (Ashgate, 1998).

417. The number of MPs elected at these elections was as follows: 80 MPs were elected at each of the 1954, 1957, 1960 and 1966 elections; 84 MPs were elected in 1969, and 87 MPs were elected at each of the 1972 and 1975 elections.

418. The Royal Commission's terms of reference required it to examine the law and practice governing parliamentary elections; the voting system; the number of MPs; the criteria and methods for setting electorate boundaries; Maori representation; the term of Parliament; the use of referendums; election expenditure and state funding of political parties; and any other matter relating to the electoral system.

419. Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, Towards a Better Democracy (Wellington, 1986), paragraph 2.1.

420. This is a reference to the Treaty of Waitangi which was signed in 1840 between the British Crown and a number of chiefs of the indigenous Maori people. Although the Treaty is regarded as a founding document of New Zealand, the ways in which it should be recognised and interpreted have been matters of controversy in recent years.

421. Royal Commission, Towards a Better Democracy, paragraphs 2.56-2.57.

422. Briefly, the STV system involves preferential voting in multi-member constituencies; the Preferential Vote involves preferential voting in single-member constituencies; and SM is similar to MMP except that proportionality only applies to the list seats, rather than to all the seats in Parliament as is the case with MMP. For further information about these and other voting systems, see Andrew Reynolds and Ben Reilly, The International IDEA Handbook of Electoral System Design (Stockholm, 1997).

423. Although the Royal Commission recommended the abolition of the four separate Mäori electorate seats which had been introduced in 1867, the MMP system put to the voters at the 1993 referendum retained those seats and allowed their number to vary according to the number of Mäori electors on the Mäori rolls.

424. Royal Commission, Towards a Better Democracy, paragraphs 2.181-2.182.

425. Some changes to entrenched provisions have been made by a vote of 75% of all MPs, including lowering the voting age from 21 to 20 (1969) and then to 18 (1974). Referendums on whether the term of Parliament should be extended from 3 years to 4 years were held in 1967 and 1990; both were defeated by large majorities. There are no special majority or turnout requirements in order for the result of such a referendum to be effective.

426. Royal Commission, Towards a Better Democracy, paragraphs 1.1-1.20, 7.33-7.34, 9.174-9.188.

427. For an outline of the origins and activities of the Electoral Reform Coalition and of the Campaign for Better Government (an anti-MMP lobby group formed in 1993), see Jackson and McRobie, New Zealand Adopts Proportional Representation, chapter 7.

428. Report of the Electoral Law Committee on the Inquiry into the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, I.17B (1988), p. 21.

429. Government response to the Report of the Electoral Law Committee on the Inquiry into the Report of the Royal Commission on the Electoral System, Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, I.20 (1989), p. 58.

430. Apart from the matter of the Mäori seats mentioned above, the only substantial departure from the Royal Commission's MMP scheme was the increase in the threshold from the 4% recommended by the Commission to 5%. The new Electoral Act established an Electoral Commission and introduced a system for the registration of political parties. Amendments passed in 1996 require registered parties to disclose significant donations annually, limit the amounts registered parties may spend on advertising at a general election and require registered parties to disclose their election expenditure (limits on election spending by candidates have existed since 1895).

431. The House of Representatives appointed the 9-member MMP Review Committee on 4 April 2000. The Committee is chaired by the Speaker. MPs from six of the seven parliamentary parties are members of the Committee; the seventh party declined to participate. The Committee's terms of reference cover the criteria for deciding the number and boundaries of General electorates, Mäori representation, whether there should be any further referendum on changes to the electoral system, and the representation of women, Mäori and ethnic minorities. The House directed the Committee to reach its conclusions 'on the basis of unanimity or, if this is not possible, near- unanimity, having regard to the numbers in the House represented by each of the members of the committee ('near-unanimity' means agreement has been given on behalf of the overwhelming majority of members of Parliament)'. The Committee is required to present its final report to the House before 1 June 2002.

432. An independent Electoral Commission was established when the 1993 referendum was passed. It conducted a further campaign of public education and information about MMP prior to the first MMP election in 1996 and again prior to the 1999 general election.

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