The primary and most expensive media available for educational and information purposes are those that have a national impact. With changes in information technology and ownership, different media have to be considered in different ways by people placing information or developing strategies to communicate specialised messages.
This section covers the following:
- television
- radio
- segmentation of audiences
- newspapers
- magazines
- media synergy
- the Internet
Television
Television should be considered as a medium capable of conveying complex messages and emotions to large audiences. In the majority of countries, ownership of television sets has resulted in the individualisation of audiences; at best, a family and friends may be together when a broadcast is made. Often people will be on their own. In some societies, there may be a culture of communal viewing, but this seems to diminish as personal incomes increase.
As a result, producers and broadcasters have to make use of techniques to keep viewers watching, particularly if advertisements rather than programme content is being used. These techniques are taken on the whole from the experience of general television programming. Educators make use of advertisements, documentaries (especially personal stories and celebrity recommendations), soap operas or running serials, game shows, and so on.
All of these are costly to produce and take a high degree of planning to maintain at the necessary standard. Because television is a hungry medium, there is also a substantial demand for new material on a regular basis.
Finally, in relation to programme material, it is important to understand that the material will have to compete with commercially produced, and often international quality (of production, if not content) programmes. Television is unforgiving, and television watchers will turn off or may not even turn on the socially important but boring or amateurish.
Educators also have to prepare material that, while authoritative, does not look lavish or extravagant because it is produced with taxpayers' money.
Television viewership is regularly monitored by advertisers and by broadcasters. Ratings (or indices establishing viewership patterns and numbers) are used to determine when to place advertisements and the cost of these. In general, the cheapest time is that when smaller audiences or audiences with lower buying power are watching. These audiences can be important for education planners, who should analyse viewer patterns in more detail to discover whether, for example, women or the aged are watching.
In some cases, broadcasters may provide free time for voter or civic education messages; in other cases, this may have to be purchased directly or sponsored by companies. When sponsorship is sought, care has to be taken that the relationship between the message and the sponsor is a congenial one. Company credibility over its treatment of workers, consumers, or the environment can undermine the message. Moreoever, political activity or endorsements by the sponsor can also undermine the non-partisan nature of the message and the educator. Educators will need to discuss their own commitment to non-partisanship and the neutrality of the sponsor in advance.
It is not only the reputation of a company sponsor that can undermine a message. The reliance on celebrity endorsements pop performers, professional sports stars, and so on, can be undermined at considerable cost because of indiscreet behaviour by a single individual. Such behaviour may be only a sudden affiliation with one or other political parties, or that a stand on some issue is co-opted by a party platform. Whatever the case, the impact on a nonpartisan programme can be
destructive.
Amongst the most watched of all programmes are news broadcasts. Educators are extremely fortunate if they can create news or have the advantage of a large budget, free airtime, or a sponsor that enables them to place advertisements next to news broadcasts.
Before making a large investment in television production in transition societies, educators and even donors will want to consider how local resources and infrastructure, or the lack thereof, may affect the impact of televised messages. In countries experiening routine brown-outs due to inadequate energy supply, educators would be better advised to invest in radio (which can be battery operated) and print advertising.
Radio
Next to television, radio provides the largest audience. In the majority of countries, and amongst poorer people in most countries, radio has a greater reach than television.
Radio has an advantage because it is considerably cheaper to produce and broadcast programmes and it is possible to replicate programmes in a variety of languages at low cost.
Of the options open to educators, radio poses some constraints. Serials, documentaries, and magazine programmes similar to those on television are possible, and these often develop loyal audiences. But many radio stations have adopted programme schedules that are highly specialised and these have to be taken into consideration. The most frequently used formats are 'talk radio' and 'music and news'.
Talk radio makes use of a host and telephone in audience participation format. In this format, all programming provided by educators must either be through advertisement or by the provision of guests for interview and answering of listener calls. This is a vital and educational format but guests have to be well briefed and may be called upon to give information and make comment on a broad range of topics. Fortunately, radio is an ephemeral medium and the occasional slipup by an ill-prepared educator or election authority staff member may be tolerated, but it is not advisable.
Music and news programmes are much harder to deal with. There is almost no way to break into this formula other than through the airing of advertisements, or good use of news releases.
Segmentation of Audiences
Both radio and television are becoming segmented. They may have a national or international reach through cable and satellite broadcast systems. Even broadcasters without access to satellite may have a footprint or reach that falls across national borders.
But with specialised programming, and with changes in media ownership, it is increasingly possible to send different programmes to different audiences (typically through regional breakaways from national programmes or vice versa) or to ensure that the programming attracts only particular audiences.
Because of this, television and radio have to be considered within a general portfolio of media, and each channel or station needs to be assessed according to its audience profile. Getting a message broadcast on a national television or radio channel may seem a major achievement for a voter educator. But the actual impact of that message may not be as great as it would if different strategies were adopted. This is particularly important if the costs of the educational programme are considered. National prime time (the highest viewership period) television will certainly produce a tremendous impact, but unless the coverage has been obtained cheaply (through news coverage or by supplying a guest on a highly rated programme for example) the cost can also be high.
Education can be spread through a large range of people, making them resources for their own communities. But educators also should weigh the impact of a highly centralised strategy (television and radio programmes and advertising spots can be organised by a small professional team) against a more complex but decentralised face-to-face strategy.
If the choice is made in favour of a centralised strategy, educators should obtain good advice from media agencies about the best mix. They should also concentrate on ensuring good news coverage of the election itself, and may use their advertising budget to encourage attention to their programme.
Newspapers
National newspapers fall into two categories: dailies, which have very tight production schedules and deadlines; and weeklies or monthlies, which tend to carry more in-depth articles and background to the news. Both will also carry special supplements of an educational nature or will run ongoing stories and coverage.
During election periods, newspapers often devote large amounts of space to coverage of candidates and contestants, and to the election process itself. In some cases, newspapers may have a track record of support for a particular party or faction; or they may choose to endorse a particular party or person in an election.
The advantage of using newspapers as a major part of an educational strategy is the durability of the product. Not only is a newspaper read by the purchaser, there will inevitably be adequate statistics on the number of other readers for that particular purchase. And while most people recycle or discard newspapers daily, educational supplements and special features are often kept longer.
Indeed, because of the low cost of printing an overrun (additional copies of a newspaper or section of a newspaper) it is possible to negotiate to use a newspaper to produce and distribute the necessary educational materials for a widely dispersed team of local educators.
There are disadvantages to newspapers as well. Newspaper readership, especially of national general publications, appears to be falling even in highly literate societies. In many transitional settings, newspaper readership may be limited to more urban, educated, and financially secure strata of society. Also in societies with high levels of illiteracy, newspaper readership is associated with literacy; and although a number of newspapers may publish special supplements for neoliterate or semiliterate readers, they rely on mediators to make sure these are passed on.
Also in transitional settings and closed societies, actual or artificial shortages of paper and ink, confiscation of newspapers, revocation of printing licenses, and even seizure of printing facilities and equipment can present real problems. Educators will need to assess the risk factors in such settings before proceeding with advertisements or articles in newspapers.
National patterns of readership should be considered before decisions are made on how national newspapers can contribute, whether through advertisement, opinion and interest pieces, interviews with journalists, press releases, or special supplements. When the intention is to make newspapers a major part of the strategy, the use of journalists who understand the demands of newsrooms is essential as these are quite peculiar and often impenetrable and mystifying to the general educator.
Educators should concentrate on briefing reporters and editors about their plans, and should continue to provide good information that will enhance the coverage they give the elections.
Personal and regular contact is essential, and can go a long way to ensuring the media report accurately and informatively about the work of election authorities and the issues that educators consider important.
Magazines
There are a tremendous number and variety of magazines. They are produced quarterly, monthly, weekly, in regional and international editions, in syndicated titles, and for highly specialised audiences. Some magazines aspire to the quality of technical and specialised journals. As the technology of layout and production becomes more widely dispersed and more acceptable, some technical and specialised journals aspire to the accessibility of magazines.
For each of these magazines, there is a different editorial policy and a specialised audience. When educators can gain access to these magazines there are many payoffs: popular readerships, longevity of access to the material, and attractive layout. On the other side, the audience may be too specialised and the article may become outdated quickly (most monthly magazines have a three-month production schedule).
Educators who can produce standard articles and have them placed in general and well-read magazines over the period of their campaign have a substantial aid in their general programme strategy. At the very least, magazines can be used to encourage voters to contact the election authorities and get information. Because of the slow lead times and high costs of magazine advertising, there are few examples of these having been used.
Media Synergy
Media ownership patterns in the market economy that influences almost all countries have resulted in an increasing attempt to create synergy between different media. This same synergy has often been sought by educational campaigns. So, radio programmes are supplemented by magazine-like publications; newspaper reports on television debates; and television anchors reading and commenting on the day's newspaper headlines and interviewing journalists rather than the primary sources for news coverage.
This increasing combination of media can produce some deadening public effects in civil and political life. But when factored into an educational programme, these combinations can also produce remarkable cost savings and increase coverage and impact of a particular learning programme.
The Internet
There are a range of new media, some only available on the Internet, some springing up as a result of other advances in computer technology.
The Internet audience is not yet large, and although stereotyped as largely young and male, it is growing in size and diversity at an almost unbelievable rate. With new technology able to track individual interests and send information to readers, or alternatively to have the readers select the type of information they want to receive, the Internet is making a difference to all forms of media.
Even the term 'reader' is misplaced, as computers become more powerful and more available in private homes, and public and community spaces. Internet users typically can read, see static or moving images, and listen to and respond to messages placed on the World Wide Web.
Even in countries (those that are generally resource poor also have less access to computer networks, which rely on telephone linkages) where there is not widespread individual or group access to the Internet, there are opportunities for specialised messages and programmes. Interestingly, the web is the one medium that transcends locality. Once on the web, even a local resource, such as one created for semiliterate voters in a state within the United States, can be accessed by a library patron in South Africa.
This topsy-turviness of the Internet, which is evolving on a daily basis, makes it difficult to predict the impact on learning patterns and educational strategy. There is no doubt that civic education and voter education programmes have to begin considering its use.
The caveat is that, as with all new technology, it has the danger of being driven by enthusiasm. The initial costs of developing a web site capable of performing well can be high. This cost can be recouped or justified only by a high level of traffic (but whether this traffic is the required audience will remain to be seen). Initially, it is best to use the tools for second-level programmes, such as circulating material to educators and election officials.
Spending money in order to have a student in California learn how to vote in Bosnia may not be seen as a very effective use of resources, although countries with high numbers of skilled expatriate voters may be well served by a well-designed web site.
