Parallel Qualifications for Registration and Voting
It goes without saying that the qualifications for voter registration should parallel the basic
qualifications for voting. These are normally enumerated in the country's constitution, or in a
Bill or Charter of Rights. Most countries that aspire to be democracies try to maintain universal
suffrage for all citizens who have attained the age of majority, customarily eighteen years. Also,
there may be residency requirements for registration and voting, especially if the country uses a
constituency-based electoral system. In addition, there are often restrictions on voting for
citizens whose rights have been suspended because they have been convicted of a crime or
deemed mentally incompetent.
Eliminating Barriers to Registration and Voting
Over time, many legal barriers to voting, such as property ownership, race, gender, and moral
fitness (see Overview ), have lost their legitimacy in limiting democratic decision-making. Similar
changes in restrictions on enfranchisement can be seen among some current qualifications. In
Scandinavia, for example, the franchise is extended to foreign nationals for certain local
elections, provided they have fulfilled specified residency requirements. And many countries
are making the vote increasingly available to foreigners living abroad.7 The 1996
election in Bosnia and Herzegovina provided for Refugee Voter Registration in over 10 foreign
countries (including Germany, Denmark, Sweden, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Austria, the
United States and Turkey, among others).8 The 1994 national election in South Africa
set a unique precedent by enabling citizens living in seventy-nine other countries to cast their
ballots in the election.9
Citizenship as a Barrier to Registration
A particularly difficult issue related to qualifications is often found in newly emerging states,
or in countries whose borders have recently changed or have been open to dispute. The
difficulty turns on the question of when a resident attains citizenship status, and with it, full
democratic rights. In the first instance, these are not purely matters of election administration,
but rather more directly political matters that relate to fundamental issues of governance,
such as the relationship between nation and state and the nature of citizenship in the new state.
Such issues bear directly on election administration, however, when rigid citizenship
requirements have the result of disenfranchising significant segments of a country's residents
from voter registration. In an age when most elections around the world are monitored by
election observers of one kind or another, including international observers, domestic observers,
and poll-watchers from other parties, barriers to registration can easily lead to charges that the
democratic principles of free and fair elections are being violated.
Identifying Qualified Voters
The manner in which election administrators can confirm that potential voters have met
citizenship qualifications and are able to identify themselves obviously varies from one setting to
another. With a periodic voters list, this is often done either through door-to-door enumeration
or the establishment of voter registration centres, or some combination of the two. When
potential voters present themselves to election administration officials, a more complicated
procedure may be necessary to establish their identity and qualifications. In countries where
residents normally carry personal identification, such as a birth certificate, passport, civil
identity card or driver's licence, then simply producing that identification is often sufficient. In
settings where residents normally do not carry personal identification, particularly in less
developed countries, establishing the identities of citizens may require a sworn statement or even
confirmation of identity by another resident of the community.
When using the continuous list, the identification required will vary depending upon whether
voters are registering for the first time or changing information already on the list. The process
of adding new individuals to the list is very similar to the periodic list. Individuals who have
just reached the age requirement, for example, could use their birth certificates together with
photo identification to prove their identities and qualifications. Newly enfranchised immigrants
could provide immigration documentation. Voters changing their registration information, such
as name or residence, may be required to provide marriage certificates or other identification
with correct address, as appropriate.
With the civil registry, the identity of potential voters is normally established by virtue of the
individual's civil record, referenced by his or her identification number. This information can be
transferred from the civil registry to the electoral registry on a continuous basis. All changes to
the civil registry will in turn be reflected in the electoral registry as well.
Voting Outside Normal Voting Station
Many voting systems require voters to be registered at a particular voting station and limit
voting to those registered at that location. There is often a need to provide exceptions, however,
for individuals who are required to be away from their normal place of residence during the
election. One way to accommodate this is to use advance polling, where those who will be away
during the normal voting period may vote in advance. A second method is to provide certified
transfers of registration to those who are absent for reasons deemed to be valid and legitimate.
Such reasons can be defined very narrowly, to include election officials and military personnel
absent due to official business, or more broadly to include all those for whom voting on the
normal election day is simply inconvenient.10
Exemptions from Voting
While election authorities often are dedicated to ensuring that all those who are eligible to vote
are registered to do so, in systems where voting is mandatory a somewhat paradoxical issue may
arise. Some eligible registered voters may actually wish to be excused from voting. In Brazil,
for example, voting is mandatory for everyone aged eighteen to seventy years. The only
exception occurs if one is illiterate, in which case voting is optional. Voting is also optional
between the ages of sixteen and seventeen and after seventy years. A registered voter in Brazil
who wishes to be excused from voting must complete an 'electoral justification' and submit it to
an electoral judge in the designated voting district.11
Identifying Voters: Moldova
The system used in Moldova provides for particularly liberal registration procedures. The
voters list is based on the civil registry and referenced to the 'internal passports' that all citizens
must carry for identification. Voters who have moved recently and haven't yet completed
change of registration forms can be placed on a supplementary roll or have their passports
stamped for a ballot at the polling booth. Although these procedures could lend themselves to
electoral fraud, strong criminal sanctions against multiple voting have all but eliminated this risk
in Moldova.12
